Sangam Age: Economy of the Sangam Age | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Economic Prosperity in the Sangam Age: Agriculture and Trade

The prosperity of people during the Sangam age was deeply rooted in fertile agriculture and the expansion of trade. The ancient Tamil text,Maduraikkanji, highlights agriculture and trade as the primary forces driving economic development in this period.

Fertile Agriculture:

• During the Sangam age, the fertility of the land played a crucial role in agricultural productivity. The region's farmers benefited from rich, arable soil, which allowed them to cultivate a variety of crops effectively. This agricultural abundance not only supported the local population but also contributed to surpluses that could be traded.

Expansion of Trade:

• Trade during the Sangam age was vibrant and expansive. The surplus produced from agriculture enabled communities to engage in trade, both locally and with distant regions. This trade facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and cultural practices, further enhancing economic prosperity.
• The combination of fertile land and a robust trading network created a cycle of production and exchange that was fundamental to the economic success of the people in the Sangam age, as noted in the Maduraikkanji.

Agriculture

• Agriculture was the primary occupation and the main source of revenue for the state during the Sangam period.
• The emphasis on cultivation is reflected in the people’s interest in cattle rearing.
• Sangam poems often mention milk and milk products like curd, butter, ghee, and buttermilk.
• The significance of cattle is highlighted by the literary references to cattle raids on enemy territories.
• One of the king’s main responsibilities was to protect the cattle within his kingdom.
• Silappaddikaramalso connects the happiness and prosperity of the people to agriculture.
• Paddy and sugarcane were the two most important crops cultivated in large quantities, along with others like ragi,cotton,pepper,ginger,turmeric,cinnamon, and various fruits.
• Jackfruit and pepper were particularly famous in the Chera country.
• The kings of the Sangam age implemented significant measures to develop agriculture.
• Karikala Chola notably dug tanks for irrigation, and his embankment of the Cauvery River greatly benefited agriculture.
• Tank irrigation, as mentioned in various poems, played a crucial role in supporting agricultural activities.

Industry and Craft

• The poems from the Sangam period mention various craftsmen such as goldsmiths, blacksmiths, coppersmiths, potters, sculptors, painters, and weavers.
• Handicrafts like weaving, metalwork, carpentry, shipbuilding, and ornament making with beads, stones, and ivory were highly popular.
• There was a strong demand for these products due to the peak of internal and external trade during this period.
• Spinning and weaving of cotton and silk garments reached high standards, with Uraiyur's cotton clothes being particularly sought after in the western world.
• Manimekalaidescribes the collaboration of architects from Maharashtra, blacksmiths from Malwa, carpenters from Greece and Rome, and jewelers from Magadha with local craftsmen.
• Occupations were generally hereditary, passed down from father to son.
• According to Silappadikaram, people of different professions lived in separate streets, leading to progress in various trades and industries and enhancing their skills.
• The art of building reached advanced levels, with notable works by carpenters.
• The mention of boats with carvings of horses, elephants, and lions in Silappadikaram indicates skilled carpentry.
• Thriving trade activities with the Mediterranean and other distant regions necessitated the construction of well-built and seaworthy ships.
• Other construction activities included moats, bridges, drainage systems, and lighthouses.
• The art of painting was widely practiced and appreciated.
• Paripadalrefers to a museum of paintings in Madura (Madurai), and Silappadikaram mentions the sale of pictures.
• Paintings were in high demand for walls, roofs, dresses, bedspreads, curtains, and various everyday items.
• The art of weaving was popular not only among Tamils but also among foreigners.
• Sangam literature frequently mentions garments with woven floral designs.
• Dresses were woven from cotton, silk, wool, and even rat hair, and coloring yarn was known.
• Indian silk, prized for its fineness, was highly demanded by Roman merchants.
• Weaving was primarily a domestic industry involving all family members, especially women.
• Leather workers, potters, and other craftsmen also contributed to industrial development.
• Notably, Greek sculpture and foreign craftsmanship were introduced to South India during this period.
• Literary works like Nedunalvadai,Mullaippattu, and Padiruppattu refer to beautiful lamps made by foreigners, Roman pots, and wine jars.
• The Graeco-Roman influence is evident in the sculptures of Amaravati (Andhra Pradesh) and Ceylon.

Trade

Internal and Foreign Trade:

• Trade during the Sangam Age was well-organized and brisk, as detailed in Sangam literature, Greek and Roman accounts, and archaeological evidence.
• Trade was primarily conducted through barter, although coins were also used.

External Trade:

• The Tamils of the Sangam age engaged in trading contacts with the Mediterranean world (Greece and Rome), Egypt, China, Southeast Asia, and Sri Lanka.
• With the rise of the Roman Empire, Roman trade gained prominence, marking the peak of Indo-Roman trade.
• Numerous gold and silver coins issued by Roman Emperors like Augustus, Tiberius, and Nero have been found throughout Tamil Nadu.
• Literary works such as Silappadikaram,Manimekalai, and Pattinappalai frequently mention interactions with Greek and Roman traders.
• The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea and accounts by foreigners like Pliny, Ptolemy, Strabo, and Petronius discuss various ports and traded articles during this period.
• Archaeological excavations have uncovered artifacts confirming trading relations between Tamil regions and other countries, including coin hoards.

Ports:

• Sangam texts prominently mention the ports of Musiri,Puhar(Kaveripattinam), and Korkai, the major ports of the time.
• The port city of Puhar became a hub of foreign trade, with large ships arriving laden with precious goods.
• The Periplus also refers to ports like Tondi,Musiri, and Comari(Kanyakumari),Colchi(Korkai),Poduke(Arikamedu), and Sopatma.

Vessels:

• The Periplus describes three types of vessels used in South India: small coasting vessels, large coasting vessels, and ocean-going ships.
• Large vessels called Colandia were used for sailing from the Tamil Coast to the Ganges.

Export:

• Export commodities to Rome fetched high returns, including live animals like tigers, leopards, monkeys, and peacocks.
• Chief animal products included ivory and pearls.
• Plant products such as aromatics, spices (pepper, ginger, cardamom, cloves, nutmegs), coconut, plantain, jaggery, teak wood, sandalwood, and special cotton cloth (argaru from Uraiyur) were among the chief exports.
• Mineral products like diamonds, beryl, steel, and semiprecious stones were also exported from South India.

Import:

• Main articles imported from Rome included coins, coral, wine, lead, tin, and jewelry.
• Beads manufactured in South India during this period have been found in various Southeast Asian sites, indicating maritime contacts between the regions.
• Foreign traders established settlements in many towns.

Internal Trade:

• Internal trade flourished with local trade networks connecting different urban centers.
• Silappadikaram mentions the marked streets of Puhar, while Maduraikkanji describes the market at Madurai, the Pandyan capital.
• Merchants transported goods using carts and animals, and internal trade was primarily based on barter.

Inland Urban Areas:

• Besides coastal towns, inland urban centers like Madurai,Karur,Perur,Kodumanal,Uraiyur, and Kanchipuram also flourished.
• Korkai on the East Coast was famous for pearl fishing, while Kodumanal was known for beryl.
• Trade extended beyond cities to remote villages, all linked by the trading network.
• Carts were a significant mode of transport for inland trade, used for carrying goods and people, including traders.

Sources of Revenue in Ancient Tamilakam

• Land Revenue: The primary source of income for the state.
• Trade: A crucial source of royal revenue.
• Transit Duties: Collected from merchants moving goods from one place to another.
• Custom Duties: Imposed on foreign trade.
• Pattinappalai: Refers to custom officials stationed at the seaport of Puhar.
• Roads and Highways: Well-maintained and guarded to prevent robbery and smuggling.
• Spoils of War: Contributed to royal income, but income from agriculture was the foundation for war and political stability.
• Booty from Wars: A significant source of income for the royal treasury.

Urbanization and the Authority of the King

• According to Champakalakshmi, the urbanization during the Sangam period did not occur within the framework of a state polity. Instead, she argues that this was a time characterized by tribal chiefdoms or, at most, 'potential monarchies.'
• She contends that the vendar(a term referring to local chieftains or rulers) had limited control over agricultural lands and relied on tribute and plunder for their sustenance.
• However, evidence such as writing, advanced literature, urban centers, specialized crafts, and long-distance trade suggests a more complex scenario.
• References in poems to these kings making offerings of gold, gems, muslin, and even horses and elephants indicate a disparity in access to and control over resources.
• Kings were active in long-distance maritime trade as consumers of luxury goods and by developing ports of trade, imposing tolls, and customs.
• There is also clear evidence of dynastic coin issues. The presence of at least a basic state structure is evident in the Chola, Chera, and Pandya monarchies. Even though these rulers may not have had full control over the agrarian plains, a regular or extensive system of taxation, or a centralized coercive machinery, the existence of a rudimentary state structure cannot be denied.