Sangam Literature and Culture | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

The Concept of Sangam in Early South Indian History

• The term 'Sangam' translates to 'confluence' in a literal sense. However, when we consider its significance in early South Indian history, it refers to an assembly, college, or academy of scholars and poets. These gatherings were held under the patronage of the Pandyan kings, who were passionate supporters of literature and the fine arts.
• The Sangam operated as a voluntary organization of poets, akin to a Round Table Conference where only genuine poets were allowed to participate. This esteemed assembly produced literary works of exceptional quality, contributing significantly to the cultural and artistic heritage of the time.

Chronology

• There is debate among scholars about the exact timeline of the Sangam age due to differing opinions on the dating of Sangam works, which are crucial for understanding this period.
• K.A.N. Sastri dates the Sangam age to A.D. 100-250 based on the composition of Sangam literature.
• Traditionally,Tolkappiyam is considered the oldest Tamil work. M. Arokiaswami argues that Tolkappiar, the author of Tolkappiyam, lived around the 4th or 3rd century B.C., suggesting that the text itself dates to this period.
• A key point in establishing the Sangam chronology is the contemporaneity of Gajabhagu II of Sri Lanka and Cheran Senguttuvan of the Chera dynasty, as confirmed by texts like Silappathigaram,Dipavamsa, and Mahavamsa.
• The presence of Roman coins from the first century A.D. in Tamil Nadu also supports this timeline.
• Based on literary, archaeological, and numismatic evidence, the dating of Sangam literature is generally set between the third century B.C. and the third century A.D.

The Tradition of Three Sangas

• Tamil legends speak of three Sangams, or Academies of Tamil poets, in ancient Tamil Nadu, known as Muchchangam. According to the traditional accounts of Iraiyanar Ahapporul, these three Sangams (I, II, and III) are said to have flourished for 9990 years under the patronage of 197 Pandyan kings and attended by 8598 scholars.
• Sage Agastyar is believed to be the founding figure of these academies, all of which were held in the capital of the Pandyas.
• The first Sangam, held at Then Madurai, was attended by gods and legendary sages, but no literary works from this Sangam are available today.
• The second Sangam was held at Kapadapuram, but all literary works except for Tolkappiyam were lost.
• The third Sangam, founded by Mudathirumaran at Madurai, produced a large volume of literature, though only a few works have survived.
• These Tamil literary works are valuable sources for reconstructing the history of the Sangam Age.
• The first two Sangams are considered to belong to prehistory, while the date of the third Sangam is more reliably established, likely falling within the first two centuries A.D. or the century immediately preceding the Christian era.
• Tolkappiar is believed to have lived during the second Sangam era, and the third Sangam coincides with the period of Indo-Roman trade and contemporary Imperial Rome. This dating is supported by accounts from Greek writers and references in Sangam literature to overseas trade between the Mediterranean world and the Tamil region.
• Initially, admission to the Sangam was by co-option, but later it was determined by miraculous means, with Lord Siva serving as the permanent president of this esteemed institution.

The Corpus of Sangam Literature

• The Sangam works offer a wealth of information for studying the early history of Tamilakam and are of great historical significance.
• The core of Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai, Pattuppattu, Pathinenkilkanakku, and the epics Silappathigaram and Manimegalai.

Tolkappiyam:

• Authored by Tolkappiyar, Tolkappiyam is the earliest work of Tamil literature.
• It was likely composed during the second Sangam.
• Other Sangam poetry is believed to have been produced during the period of the third Sangam.
• Although Tolkappiyam is primarily a work on Tamil grammar, it also provides valuable insights into the political and socioeconomic conditions of the Sangam period.

The Ettutogai or Eight Anthologies:

• Aingurunooru
• Narrinai
• Aganaooru
• Purananooru
• Kuruntogai
• Kalittogai
• Paripadal
• Padirruppattu

The Pattuppattu or Ten Idylls:

• The Pattuppattu consists of ten descriptive poems:
• Thirumurugarruppadai: A devotional poem dedicated to Lord Muruga.
• Porunararruppadai: A poem praising Karikala, the great Chola king.
• Sirupanarruppadai: Focuses on the generosity of Nalliyakkodan, a ruler in the Chola kingdom.
• Perumpanarruppadai: Describes Tondaiman Ilantiraiyan and his capital Kanchipuram.
• Mullaippattu
• Nedunalvadai: Both dealing with Talaiyalanganattu Nedunjeliyan, a great Pandyan king.
• Maduraikkanji: Also about Talaiyalanganattu Nedunjeliyan.
• Kurinjippatttu: Portrays hilly regions and hill life.
• Pattinappalai: Praises Karikala, the great Chola king.
• Malaipadukadam: Refers to Chieftain Nannan and music and songs to encourage the army, celebrate victory, etc.

Both the Ettutogai and Pattuppattu are divided into two main themes:Aham(love) and Puram(valour).

Pathinenkilkanakku ('Eighteen Minor Works'):

• Pathinenkilkanakku contains eighteen works, primarily focusing on ethics and morals, and is considered didactic literature.
• The most significant among them is the Tirukkural, authored by Thiruvalluvar.
• It is mostly in stanzaic form, with stanzas ranging from two to five lines.
• The length of the poems was a key factor in classifying them into three broad divisions.
• The poems in the 'Eight collections' range from three to thirty-one lines, while in the 'Ten Songs', the shortest poem has 103 lines, and the longest has 782 lines.

The Five Epics ('the five great poems') include:

• Jivakachintamani
• Silappadikaram
• Manimekalai
• Valayapathi
• Kundalakesi

These epics are assigned much later dates, with the last two not extant. Among the three 'great poems' we have today, Silappadikaram and Manimekalai are known as the 'twin epics' because they narrate a continuous story about a single family: Kovalan (the rich merchant prince of Puhar), Kannagi (Kovalan's chaste wife), Madhavi (the dancer with whom Kovalan lived in wedlock), and Manimekalai (their child).

• Ilango Adigal, the author of Silappadikaram, is mentioned in the epic as the brother of the reigning Chera king Senguttuvan.
• Manimekalai was written by Sittalai Sattanar, primarily to propagate the Buddhist doctrine among Tamils.
• Both Silappadikaram and Manimekalai provide valuable insights into Sangam polity and society.
• Modern scholarship uses the term 'Sangam Literature' to refer only to those works in verse (as prose is of much later origin), which are included in the Ettutogai(Eight collections),Pattupattu(Ten songs), and Patinenkilkanakku(The Eighteen Minor Works).
• These works are judged to have been produced in that order during the period A.D 150-250.
• The poetical works describe the social, religious, economic, and political conditions of Tamilakam, focusing on cities like Madurai,Puhar(Poompuhar/Kaveripattinam),Vanji(Karur), and Kanchi.
• While the individual poems in the three groups are believed to have been produced within the first three centuries of the Christian era, they were likely collected and arranged in their current order at a much later date.
• The present Sangam collections consist of 2279 poems of varying lengths, ranging from 3 lines to about 800 lines. Some works are attributed to a single author, while others, like the Naladiyar, contain contributions from multiple poets.
• This Sangam poetry extends to more than 30,000 lines, composed by 473 poets, including women, with 102 being anonymous. Among the poets, nearly 50 were women.
• The works reflect a fairly advanced material culture and indicate that by the Sangam age, Tamil as a language had matured and become a powerful and elegant medium of literary expression.
• The Sangam poems are of two varieties: the short ode and the long poem. Scholars have divided them into various categories based on subject matter.
• For historians, short odes are often considered more valuable than long lyrics; however, the historical value of these sources is generally independent of their length.

Religious Development in the Sangam Age

• The literary evidence from the Sangam age shows a complex and rich religious development during this period. Various faiths such as Brahmanism, Jainism, and Buddhism coexisted in the Tamil region. Buddhism and Jainism were introduced to the region in the early centuries of the Christian era, while sects of Brahmanism, including Saivism and Vaishnavism, were also prominent.
• The interaction between the Vedic people and the indigenous Tamils, along with their differing faiths, is well depicted in the Sangam literature. For instance, the Silappadikaram mentions concepts like the “triple sacred fire,” the “twice-born nature,” and the “six duties,” which are associated with Brahmanical traditions.

Deities Worshipped Based on Land Types:

• Kurinji (Hilly Tracts): Chief deity was Murugan(son of Siva), and the main occupation was hunting and honey collection.
• Mullai (Pastoral Lands): Chief deity was Mayon(Vishnu), with occupations like cattle rearing and dairy works.
• Marudam (Agricultural Lands): Chief deity was Indra, worshipped as the rain god, with agriculture as the main occupation. Festivals in Indra's honor were celebrated annually.
• Neydal (Coastal Tracts): Chief deity was Varuna, with occupations like fishing and salt manufacturing.
• Palai (Desert): Chief deity was Korravai, with robbery as the main occupation.

Besides these deities, other gods and goddesses such as Lakshmi(goddess of prosperity),Baladeva,Kaman(god of love), the moon-god, sea-god, and various minor deities were also worshipped.

Beliefs in Ghosts and Spirits:

• The people of the Sangam age held beliefs in ghosts, spirits, and various supernatural beings. The text Silappadikaram mentions the "bhuta," a type of ghost or spirit.
• Minor deities, such as the guardian deities of cities like Madura and Puhar, were also acknowledged. Demons were believed to inhabit trees, battlefields, and burning ghats, with gruesome descriptions of their actions.
• Village gods, totemic symbols, and bloody sacrifices were part of the religious practice to appease ferocious deities.

Burial Rituals:

• The Tamils of the Sangam age practiced various methods of disposing of the dead, including cremation, burial, and leaving the body in the open for vultures or jackals. Burning grounds were mentioned in the text Manimekalai, where different kinds of spirits were believed to dwell.
• They also observed ritual uncleanliness during occasions of birth and death, reflecting a belief in the need for purification.

Animism:

• Animism was evident in the worship of deities believed to reside in natural features such as trees, streams, and hilltops. The dead heroes, martyrs, and other figures of valor were deified, reflecting a strong sense of reverence for those who died in noble causes.

Cult of the Goddess Pattini:

• The cult of the goddess Pattini, also known as Kannaki, who was deified as the ideal chaste wife, was significant in the Sangam age. Later traditions credit the Chera king Senguttuvan with establishing this cult.

Influence of Buddhism and Jainism:

• The arrival of Buddhism and Jainism in the early centuries of the Christian era had a profound impact on the philosophical thoughts of the Tamils during the Sangam age. These religions emphasized the importance of knowledge over material possessions, urging people to look beyond the physical world.

Patronage of Jainism:

• Records in Tamil–Brahmi inscriptions indicate that caves were excavated for Jain monks and nuns by various kings and chieftains. Inscriptions from the 2nd century CE at Pugalur note the construction of a rock shelter for a Jain monk during the investiture ceremony of the Chera prince Ilankatunko.
• Inscriptions from the 2nd century BCE from Mangulam document gifts made to Jain monks by individuals connected to the Pandya king Nedunjeliyan.

Saivism and Vaishnavism:

• References to Saivism appear in the text Manimekalai, where Siva is described through various attributes rather than by name. Early mentions of deities such as Muruga(son of Siva) and Mayon(an early name for Vishnu) suggest the presence of these cults, but clear distinctions between Saivism and Vaishnavism may have developed later during the Sangam age.
• The Chola king Senganan was legendary for his devotion to Siva, illustrating the early roots of these religious practices.

Temple Worship:

• The worship of gods and goddesses in temples became a sophisticated aspect of Sangam religion. Temples dedicated to deities like Siva, Muruga, Baladeva, Vishnu, Kaman, and the moon-god were mentioned in various texts. The method of worship typically included dancing and offerings of flowers, rice, and meat to the gods.
• The text Silappadikaram describes stone images of gods, and archaeological discoveries, such as a lingam dating back to centuries B.C., support the existence of temple worship during this period.

Beliefs in Omens and Planetary Influences:

• The people of the Sangam age also held beliefs in the significance of dreams and the influence of planets on human life. Certain signs were considered ominous, such as the cawing of a crow, which was seen as a harbinger of an eagerly awaited guest.
• The text Kuruntogai mentions the positive connotation of the crow's cawing, where the bird was fed with rice and ghee. Sneezing was viewed as inauspicious, reflecting the various superstitions prevalent in society.

Fine Arts

During the Sangam age, poetry, music, and dancing were highly valued and enjoyed by the people. Kings, chieftains, and nobles generously supported poets with liberal donations.

Music and Dancing:

• The arts of music and dancing were well-developed during this period.
• Dancing was performed by Kanigaiyar, and Koothu was the most popular form of entertainment.

Women’s Pastimes:

• Women engaged in religious dances, playing dice, and varippanthu(a game with a cloth ball).
• Playing in swings made of palmrya fibers was common among girls.

Games and Toys:

• Narrinai refers to games played with decorated dolls.
• Kuruntogai mentions children playing with toy-carts and making sand houses on the seashore.

Dances and Music:

• Sangam poems describe various kinds of dances.
• Silappadikaram lists eleven types of dances divided into seven groups and provides detailed information about music.
• Different types of musical instruments like drums,flutes, and yal were sold in shops at Puhar and Madurai.

Drama:

• The performing arts also included drama, which was primarily religious in nature but occasionally depicted significant events or individuals.

Bards:

• Bardism and wandering minstrels were popular during the Sangam age. These minstrels traveled from place to place with musical instruments, singing praises of individuals or great events.
• Royal courts were often filled with singing bards known as Porunar,Panar, and Viraliyar, who were experts in folk songs and dances.
• Initially, the porunar bards motivated soldiers in battle and celebrated their victories through song. They also conveyed messages from the battlefield to the people at home.
• Bards were highly respected in society and were honored by kings. In addition to the porunar, the panar performed for the common people.