Science and Technology in Mughal India | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

• After the arrival of the Turks, there was an increased interaction between Islamic or Arab science and India.
• New technologies were introduced, including paper, the spinning wheel, the carder’s bow, an improved version of the water wheel(rahat), and the widespread use of the iron-stirrup.
• In the fields of science, the interaction primarily focused on astronomy, mathematics, and medicine, while agricultural and animal sciences were not entirely overlooked.
• Jalal al-Din Khilji(d.1296) was the first Muslim sultan of Delhi to show intellectual curiosity in Hindu learning and Sanskrit studies.
• Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq(1351) was a great scholar knowledgeable in logic, Greek philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, and physical sciences.
• He also had knowledge of medicine, was skilled in dialectics, and was an expert calligrapher.
• Tughlaq enjoyed the company of Hindu yogis and extended his patronage to Jain divines.
• The Sultans of Delhi were interested in mechanical machines like pulleys and piers.
• In the book Sirat Feroz Shahi(1370), 13 instruments used for transporting stones and heavy building materials were listed.
• Sultan Firoz Shah Tughlaq(1388) established hospitals for the free treatment of the poor and encouraged physicians in the development of Unani medicine.
• He commissioned translations of medical works from Sanskrit and ordered a work on Hindu astronomy and astrology to be translated into Persian under the name of Dalaile Firoz Shahi.
• Earlier, from the eleventh century onward, there had been a strong attack on reason and science in the Islamic world in the name of philosophy.
• Al-Ghazali(1111) was considered a great teacher who played a significant role in this assault on reason.
• As a result of this ongoing campaign, science was largely submerged under religion, mysticism, aesthetics, and other similar fields.
• Various works on science were written during this period, including those in India, which have yet to be evaluated.
• These works covered newer areas such as geography, physics especially optics and specific gravity, magnetism, and concepts of motion and time.
• However, scientific works were generally intertwined with religion, mysticism, aesthetics, and other similar fields.
• This was not a new phenomenon, as science, religion, magic, and myth were mixed in many religions.
• However, a sphere of rationality was necessary for the growth of science.
• In Europe, science developed from the 15th century onwards by establishing a sphere of rationalism separate from religion.
• The inability of science to separate itself from religion or mysticism became a hindrance to its progress in India and other parts of the Islamic world.

Science and Technology under Mughal

Indigenous Development:

• In Science: No significant contributions by Indians during this period.
• In Technology: Some inventions and new methods were introduced, particularly in the military sector. For example, innovations in the chemical sector included the production of rose-scent and the use of saltpetre for water-cooling.
• Indian Response to European Science and Technology: The Indian response was mixed, with positive, negative, and indifferent reactions.
• For instance, there were positive responses in shipbuilding but not in glass technology. In the realm of science, Indians did not seem to benefit from European advancements.

Science

A French traveler, Careri, noted about the Muslim scholars in India:

• They struggled to progress in sciences due to a lack of books, having only a few small manuscript works of Aristotle and Avicenna in Arabic.

However, there were some highly knowledgeable scientists:

• Mir Fathullah Shirazi joined Akbar’s court in 1583 and made contributions such as:
• Inventing mechanical devices
• Introducing a 'true' solar calendar (Ilahi) at Akbar’s request.
• Despite his efforts, he did not present any new scientific theories or formulas that were different from the traditional ones in India at that time.

Indians were gradually exposed to European learning:

• Abul Fazl was aware of the European discovery of America and appreciated European painting, but this knowledge did not become a regular part of geography teaching in India.
• The governor of Junnar questioned Fryer in 1670 about “the state of Europe, the government, policy, and learning.”
• Danishmand Khan showed interest in Descartes’ philosophy and scientific subjects like astronomy, geography, and anatomy.
• Bernier, a French physician, was supported by Mughal noble Agha Danishmand Khan in the late 17th century, where he explained new discoveries about blood circulation by Harvey and Pecquet.
• Bernier had a low opinion of Indians’ knowledge of anatomy, and Indian hakims and vaids showed little interest in Harvey’s discovery.

These interactions did not lead to a widespread or systematic study of Western sciences. Galileo’s discovery that the Earth orbits the Sun, as opposed to Ptolemy’s view, did not reach Indian scientists. Newton’s Laws of Motion and Law of Gravity were also unknown in India at that time. As Bernier lamented, there were no academies (except madrasas for religious studies) where such subjects could be studied. Therefore, interest in Western science and philosophy was individual and did not continue beyond the individual.

Agricultural technology

• There were no major changes in the basic tools and methods of agriculture, including the plough, iron ploughshare, and devices for irrigation.
• Methods for sowing, harvesting, threshing, and winnowing remained largely the same.

Dibbling (Method of Sowing):

• Evidence of various sowing methods, including broadcasting, seed-drill, and dibbling, particularly for cotton cultivation.
• Dibbling involves making a hole in the ground, placing the seed inside, and covering it with soil.

Introduction of New Crops and Fruits:

• Many new crops, plants, and fruits were introduced, particularly by Europeans, especially the Portuguese.
• Important items brought from America included tobacco, pineapple, cashew nuts, and potato.
• Other introduced items included tomato, guava, and red chillies.
• Maize was likely introduced by Europeans from Latin America, as it is not mentioned in Abul Fazl’s Ain-i Akbari.
• Tobacco popularized huqqa smoking.
• Mughal elites began cultivating Central Asian fruits like melons and grapes in India during Babur's time.
• Cherries were introduced in Kashmir during Akbar’s reign.
• Improved fruit quality was achieved through seed propagation.

Grafting Techniques:

• Grafting became common in India only after A.D. 1550.
• Goa was known for producing the best-quality mangoes through grafting, a technique introduced by the Portuguese.
• European travelers praised the delicious Goan mangoes.

Waterworks:

• The first Mughal Emperor Babur supported the construction of water channels for gardens, orchards, and pools.
• Akbar, his grandson, continued this tradition by building impressive waterworks in Fatehpur Sikri.
• Akbar ordered the construction of a dam with 13 gates, creating a shallow artificial lake during the monsoon.
• Water was lifted into Fatehpur Sikri using Persian water wheels and Sakias.
• Water was distributed throughout the city via a complex system of channels, pools, and reservoirs.
• Due to a water shortage and drought, Fatehpur Sikri was eventually abandoned, and Akbar moved his capital to Lahore.
• Shah Jahan, another Mughal Emperor, promoted the digging of wells and building river embankments for irrigation.
• He was the only Mughal emperor to dig two canals, Nahr-i-Faiz and Shah Nahr, drawing water from the Yamuna to irrigate fertile lands.
• During his reign, Agra became known as the Waterfront Garden City, contributing to its wealth.
• Mughal Emperors were renowned for constructing irrigation systems to expand cultivated irrigated lands, resulting in higher crop yields and increased revenue for the empire.

Textile technology

• Carpet Weaving: Significant advancements in carpet weaving occurred under the patronage of Akbar in cities like Lahore, Agra, and Fatehpur-Sikri.
• Silk Production: There was a large-scale production of silk and silk fabrics during this period.

European Influence on Textile Techniques:

• During the early seventeenth century, Europeans did not introduce their own textile techniques to India.
• Italian silk filatures were only introduced in the 1770s.

Comparative Technology in Weaving and Dyeing:

• Indian technology in weaving and dyeing was on par with contemporary European technology.
• Europeans had complaints about the width of the cloth produced, but this issue could be easily corrected.
• They also sent their own craftsmen to Murshidabad for specific colors and dyes.

Block Printing and Scribes:

• Although block printing on textiles was developed in India and used in China for printing on paper, it did not become prevalent in India.
• The reason for this could be the cheaper work done by scribes, indicating a wider diffusion of literacy than previously thought, or other factors that limited the spread of knowledge.

Military technology

• During Akbar's time, there was a system for cleaning gun barrels using a special wheel that could clean sixteen barrels quickly.
• Akbar also created a way to fire seventeen guns at once with one matchcord.
• Fathullah Shirazi, a Persian engineer under Akbar, invented a multi-barrel gun and a device for cleaning barrels.

Canon Foundry:

• The Mughals made cannons for Indian rulers. Under Shah Jahan, Jaigarh Fort became a famous cannon foundry.
• Jaigarh Fort had iron ore mines and a wind-tunnel furnace for melting metal at high temperatures.
• The Mughals produced large cannons, often 16 feet long, in a single day.
• During Aurangzeb's reign, Mughal cannon production peaked, with Zafar baksh being a notable composite cannon.

Rockets:

• Akbar was the first to use metal cylinder rockets against war elephants.
• The Mughal Army used rockets during the Siege of Bidar.
• Hyder Ali of Mysore improved rocket technology, which was crucial in the Second Anglo-Mysore War.
• Tipu Sultan and his father were pioneers in using solid fuel rockets in warfare.
• They developed tactics for mass rocket attacks and wrote manuals for rocket troops.
• Rocket manufacturing areas were known as Taramandal Pet.
• Rocket technology spread to Europe after Tipu Sultan's death.

Scientific Inventions:

• Under Akbar, there were inventions like a device for cleaning gun barrels and a moving carriage for grinding corn.
• However, these innovations did not spread widely because the ruling class was not interested in improving the lives of the laboring classes.

Shipbuilding

• Ships in medieval India were entirely constructed of wood.
• Joining Planks: Rabbeting was commonly used in India to join planks.
• Preservation: Planks were smeared with pitch, tar, and lime to seal fissures and protect against sea worms.
• Caulking vs. Indigenous Method: Indians did not adopt European caulking because it was not technically superior and more expensive.
• Use of Iron: Indians adopted iron nails and clamps from Europeans. For instance, Abul Fazl noted the use of 468 mans of iron for a ship during Akbar's time.
• Mughal Paintings: These depict the use of iron nails, strips, and clamps in vessel construction.
• Iron Anchors: Introduced from Europe in the seventeenth century, replacing earlier stone anchors.
• Bailing Water: Initially done with buckets, later replaced by the European iron chain-pump, although it was not widely used in India.
• Ship Design: By 1612, ships in Dabul were made with European-like features. Local carpenters, such as those in the Krishna-Godavari delta, learned European construction techniques.
• Surat: Another center for ship construction.
• Arming Ships: Indian merchant ships began carrying guns and armed men for defense. The Ganj-i-Sawai, for example, was armed with 80 cannons and 400 muskets.
• Limitations: Despite their armament, Indian ships like the Ganj-i-Sawai were often outmatched by European vessels due to factors like poor cannon placement and marksmanship.
• Cultural Exchange: Indian craftsmen were capable of replicating European models, such as a horse carriage for Jahangir, though these designs were not always disseminated or improved upon.

Metallurgy

• Fuel: Wood charcoal was used for smelting, as coal was not known at the time.
• Furnaces: Smelters utilized small furnaces for melting iron and bronze.
• Bellows: The bellows used in the process were ribless and small, which allowed for an efficient air blast, generating very high temperatures in the furnaces.
• Metal Quality: Due to the varying quality of molten metal in different furnaces, the fabricated objects often lacked high quality.
• Iron Cannons and Handgun Barrels: Abul Fazl described the technique of making iron cannons and handgun barrels at Akbar’s arsenal, possibly indicating newly invented methods.
• “Wootz” Iron: Production of “wootz” iron in India dates back to 400 B.C. This high-quality steel was exported to sword-making centers like Damascus in Syria.
• Zinc Extraction: Zinc was not known in Europe at the time but was extracted in India.
• Alloys: Various alloys such as iron, steel, brass, and bronze were used in the making of weapons.
• Karkhana: Weapons were produced in workshops called Karkhana, and descriptions of cannon castings are found in Babur Nama.
• Screw Cannon: To transport heavy cannons to hilltops, cannons were made in pieces and assembled on-site.
• Multi-Barreled Cannons: Cannons with multiple barrels were designed to fire up to 17 barrels successively.
• Coating: Threads made from various metals like gold and silver were used for coating the surface of copper with a mixture of zinc and tin.
• Coin Production: Gold, silver, and copper coins were produced as part of metallurgy.
• Seamless Globe: The seamless globe, considered a remarkable feat in metallurgy, was invented in Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in 998 AH (1589-90 CE).
• Muhammad Salih Tahtawi: A Mughal metallurgist, astronomer, and craftsman, he is known for creating a massive, seamless celestial globe in 1659 using a secret wax casting method.
• Inscription and Production: The globe was inscribed with Arabic and Persian text, and twenty other such globes were produced in Lahore and Kashmir during the Mughal Empire.

Glass technology

Europeans also introduced a variety of glass articles to India, including:

• Looking-glasses (mirrors made of glass, as opposed to metal mirrors which were already known in India).
• Spectacles.
• Drinking glasses.
• Magnifying or burning glasses.
• Telescopes.

Printing press

• European movable metal types were introduced to Goa around A.D. 1550 by the Portuguese.

Jahangir's Doubt and the Jesuits' Demonstration:

• There was an instance when Jahangir expressed skepticism about the casting of types in Persian or Arabic scripts during a conversation with the Jesuits.
• In response, the Jesuits promptly showed Jahangir a copy of the Arabic version of the gospel to demonstrate the capability.

Bhimji Parekh and the Introduction of Printing Technology:

• Bhimji Parekh, a chief broker for the English Company in Surat, had a strong interest in the technology of movable metal types.
• At Bhimji’s request, a printer was sent to India in A.D. 1674 to facilitate the use of this technology.

Time reckoning devices

• Babur, in his writings, mentions the water-clock, and Abul Fazl also notes its details.
• European clocks and watches were often gifted to Indian elites, such as when Sir Thomas Roe presented a watch to Jahangir.
• The Jesuit church in Agra had a public clock-face with a bell, showcasing European timekeeping.
• Indians were hesitant to accept European clocks largely due to the difference in time-reckoning systems:
• The Indian system divided the day into 60 "hours" of 24 minutes each, while the European system used 24 hours of 60 minutes each.

Miscellaneous

• True Arch, Dome, and Lime-Mortar: These techniques were introduced in India by the Turks.
• No Significant Development: There were no major advancements in building technology during the 17th century.
• Blueprint Practice: A practice of creating a sort of "blueprint" for buildings, called tarh(outline in Persian), began.
• Absence of European Features: Indian buildings lacked window-panes and chimneys, which were common in Europe.

Boilers:

• Indians continued using earthen pots for refining saltpetre, unlike the Europeans who used copper boilers.

Communication:

• Oxen-Drawn Carts: Commonly used for transporting commercial goods.
• Horse-Drawn Carriages: Rare and mainly for passengers.
• Sir Thomas Roe introduced English coaches to Jahangir, who enjoyed riding in them. Some Indian nobles had similar coaches made, but the trend was short-lived.

Chemical Discoveries:

• Itr (Rose-Scent): A chemical discovery during Jahangir’s reign, noted in his Memoirs.
• Saltpetre: Used for cooling water. Abul Fazl described its use and preparation.

Grinding Technology:

• Oxen-Drawn Cart: Akbar invented a cart for grinding corn while traveling or carrying loads.
• Watermills and Windmills: Rarely used. A Mughal painting from 1603 depicts a watermill. One windmill was erected in Ahmedabad in the 17th century.
• Handmills: Made of two stones, widely used for grinding.

Science and Technology Developments:

• There were advancements in various scientific and technological areas during the Mughal period.
• However, these developments lagged behind European progress, contributing to the decline of the Mughals and the rise of British influence in India.

Astronomy

• Mughal astronomers made significant advancements in observational astronomy, producing nearly a hundred Zij treatises.
• Mughal Emperors(1526-1858) were deeply interested in the development of astronomy, patronizing astronomers in their royal courts.
• The works produced during this time mainly consisted of zijes(astronomical tables) and calendars.
• Humayun established a personal observatory near Delhi, where the instruments and observational techniques were primarily derived from the Islamic tradition.
• One of the most notable inventions of Mughal India was the seamless celestial globe.
• Mulla Chand, a court astronomer of Emperor Humayun, created the Tashil Mulla Chand, a redaction of the Zije Ulugh Beg.
• Fariduddin Munajjum, a court astronomer of Shah Jahan, compiled the Zije Shah Jehani, which included sections on calendars, spherical astronomy, and the motions and positions of planets.
• Malajeet, another astronomer at Shah Jahan’s court, wrote Parsiprakasa, providing Arabic, Persian, and Sanskrit equivalents of astronomical terms.
• Two Hindu scholars, Nitya Naad and Menisvara, synthesized Islamic traditions with Indian knowledge using Arabic, Persian, and Greek works.
• Mulla Mahmud Jaunpuri was a versatile scholar skilled in both mathematics and astronomy.

Sawai jai Singh as an astronomer

• Raja Sawai Jai Singh (d. 1743), from the Kacchawwa dynasty, was a prominent figure in 18th-century astronomy. He served as a Mansabdar under Aurangzeb and held a significant position under Muhammad Shah.
• His contributions to astronomy included translating Greek mathematical works into Sanskrit and translating European texts on trigonometry, logarithms, and Arabic astronomy texts.
• Founding of Observatories: Jai Singh established five major observatories, known as Jantar Mantar, in Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain, Mathura, and Banaras. These observatories were equipped with geometric instruments for various astronomical measurements, including timekeeping, eclipse prediction, star tracking, planetary declinations, and celestial altitudes.
• Astronomical Tables (Zij): He found existing astronomical tables (Zij) to be inadequate and set out to create new ones. After constructing metal instruments that did not meet his standards of accuracy, he built large instruments in the Delhi observatory. To ensure the accuracy of his observations, he replicated these instruments in Jaipur, Mathura, Banaras, and Ujjain.
• In his observatories, both Hindu and Muslim observers worked together to produce a new set of astronomical tables called Zij-i-Jadid-i-Muhammad Shahi.
• The Zij-i-Jadid-i-Muhammad Shahi included sections on calendars, the determination of heavenly bodies, and the motions of the Sun, Moon, and other planets, as well as eclipses.
• Integration of European Knowledge: Jai Singh incorporated the latest European astronomical knowledge into his work, drawing from Latin tables, such as those of Philippe de La Hire.
• Limitations: Despite his advancements, Jai Singh's astronomy had limitations. The lack of telescopes in India during the 18th century rendered his observatories less effective. He sought to acquire telescopes from Portugal, but Portugal was not up to date with the latest astronomical developments from England and Holland. Additionally, Jai Singh's observatories adhered to the Ptolemaic view of the universe, placing the Earth at the center, rather than the heliocentric views of Brahmagupta and Copernicus.

Alchemy

• Sake Dean Mahomed acquired extensive knowledge of Mughal Alchemy and the techniques for producing various alkali substances and soaps, which he applied in creating shampoo.
• He was a talented writer who vividly described the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II and the cities of Allahabad and Delhi, highlighting the achievements and grandeur of the Mughal Empire.
• Sake Dean Mahomed was appointed as the shampooing surgeon to both King George IV and King William IV.

Mathematics

• Ustad Ahmad Lahori (1580-1649), a renowned architect of the Taj Mahal and Red Fort, hailed from a distinguished Punjabi family that significantly contributed to mathematics.
• One of his sons, Ataullah Rashedi, translated Bij Ganita, which described the reign of Emperor Shah Jahan. He also authored Khulasa Raaz in Persian, focusing on arithmetic, algebra, and measurement. His other work, Khazinatul A’adad, dealt with arithmetic, Euclidean geometry, and algebra.
• Another son, Lutfullah Muhandis, wrote Risala Khaws A’adad, which explored properties of numbers.
• This suggests that mathematics was intertwined not only with accountancy and revenue collection but also with astronomy and architecture.
• Numerous translations were carried out from Persian and Arabic into Sanskrit.
• Maharaja Sawai Singh made significant advancements in trigonometry, particularly in determining the sine of one degree and its subdivisions, namely minutes and seconds.

Pharmacy

• Royal support fostered the growth of Greco-Islamic (Unani) medical literature with the help of Indian Ayurvedic physicians.
• During the Mughal era, various Qarabadainswere compiled, including:
  • Qarabadain Shifae’ee
  • Qarabadain Zakai
  • Qarabadain Qadri
  • Elaj-ul-Amraz
• These pharmacopoeias detailed drug quantities and preparation methods.
• Court physicians oversaw the preparation of royal medicine, ensuring safety through sealing.
• Hakeem Ali Gilani: Renowned physician, mathematician, and scientist.
• Chief physician of Emperor Akbar; invented a sweet wine to alleviate travel fatigue.
• Abul Fazl was ordered by Akbar to translate Hayatul Haiwan, a zoological dictionary by Musa al-Damiri.
• During Jahangir’s reign:Itr-i-Jehangiri was discovered by Noor Jehan.
• Hakim Ain-ul-Mulk Shirazi: Composed Alfaz-al-Adwiyya for Emperor Shah Jahan.
• Muhammad Raza of Shiraz: Wrote Riaz-i-Alamgiri dedicated to Aurangzeb.
• Hakim Akbar Arzani: Court physician of Aurangzeb, authored Tibbe Akbari and Mizan al-Tibb.
• During British rule, Eastern medicine in India declined.
• Hakim Sharif Khan of Delhi worked to revive Unani medicine.
• Hakim Ajmal Khan established Hindustani Dawakhana and Tibbiya College in Delhi.
• Dr. Salimu-Zaman Siddiqui conducted chemical investigations at Tibbiya College, leading to the production of Ajmailain.
• Talim al-Tibb College was founded in Lucknow by Hakim Abdul Aziz.

Indian responses to European technology during the Mughal period

• Shipbuilding Technology: Indians initially used coir or wooden nails to stitch planks together in shipbuilding. However, they quickly adopted European methods of using iron nails and clamps, which enhanced the strength and durability of ships. European iron anchors replaced the traditional stone anchors, and iron chain pumps for bailing out water became common.
• Agricultural Technology: Europeans introduced various crops such as Tobacco, Potato, maize, and pineapple. The Portuguese used grafting techniques to produce high-quality mangoes.
• Astronomy: Raja Sawai Jai Singh translated Greek and European works on mathematics and astronomy into Sanskrit. He integrated the latest European astronomical knowledge into his own works, as seen in the Zij, which was based on Latin tables. Rulers and nobles showed interest in European novelties, purchasing items like globes, glasses, spectacles, and house-clocks. Despite initial resistance, Indian silk reeling gradually adopted European technology.
• Military Technology: Portuguese ships and guns were admired for their superiority at sea, prompting attempts to replicate them. The Zamorin of Calicut even hired Milanese craftsmen to manufacture guns, and Venetian artisans came to Malabar to cast guns.

Negative Response to European Technology:

• Medical Science: European advancements in medical science, particularly in anatomy and the discovery of blood circulation by Harvey and Pecquet, were not well received. Indian practitioners, such as hakims and vaids, showed little interest in these discoveries.
• Glass Technology: Despite the introduction of various glass articles by Europeans, such as mirrors and spectacles, India remained backward in glass technology. Although items like bangles and jars were made, English drinking glasses, mirrors, and spectacles were in demand but not produced in India. The lack of telescopes until the eighteenth century hindered naval observations and rendered Jai Singh's observatories outdated.
• Manufacturing Cannons and Muskets: India lagged in the manufacturing of cannons and muskets. The casting process involved making holes through the mold and assembling pieces with a hot ring, leading to inferior quality. European techniques, such as casting a single piece, were not taught to Indian craftsmen, resulting in technological backwardness.
• Painting Techniques: Indian painters rejected the European technique of oil painting, indicating a resistance to adopting certain artistic practices.

Neutral Response to European Technology:

• Time Measuring Devices: European clocks and watches were gifted to Indians, but their acceptance was limited. For instance, Jahangir received a watch from Sir Thomas Roe, but there is no evidence of widespread acceptance. The absence of important components like the screw and spring may have contributed to the rejection of European house clocks, which were incompatible with the Indian time reckoning system.
• Printing Press: Jahangir expressed doubts about casting types in Persian and Arabic scripts for the printing press. However, in the 1670s, Indian interest in this technology grew, particularly among figures like Bhimji Parak, the chief broker of the English company at Surat.
• Indian responses to Western science were selective, influenced by factors such as convenience, utility, and material considerations. The abundance of skilled labor and low subsistence costs often favored manual skill over mechanical contrivance. Extreme specialization, promoted by the caste system, also played a role in the rejection of new technologies like the printing press and draw loom for weaving patterns.