Shankar IAS Summary: Agriculture | Environment for UPSC CSE PDF Download

Introduction

Agriculture, integral to economies worldwide, is a key subject for study. This field encompasses historical development, existing challenges, and future possibilities in farming. The impact of agriculture on livelihoods, food security, and the environment is central to exploration. The study underscores themes like sustainability, technological advancements, and policy implications, offering a holistic perspective. Understanding agriculture is a lens through which to analyze and contribute to national growth.

Agriculture

The term agriculture is derived from two Latin words, ager or agri, meaning soil, and cultura meaning cultivation. It encompasses all aspects of crop production, livestock farming, fisheries, forestry, etc.

• Silviculture: The art of cultivating forest trees.
• Sericulture: Rearing of silkworms for raw silk production.
• Apiculture: Maintenance of honeybee colonies by humans.
• Olericulture: Science of vegetable growing for food.
• Viticulture: Science, production, and study of grapes.
• Floriculture: Discipline of horticulture concerned with flowering and ornamental plants.
• Arboriculture: Cultivation, management, and study of individual trees and woody plants.
• Pomology: Branch of horticulture focusing on fruit cultivation.
• Aeroponics: Growing plants in an air or mist environment without soil.
• Hydroponics: Growing plants using mineral nutrient solutions in water without soil.
• Geoponic: Growing plants in normal soil in farming practice.

Scope and Importance of Agriculture

Contributing 18.3% to the GDP, agriculture is a vital sector providing livelihoods to about two-thirds of the population. It employs 45.5% of the workforce and is crucial for food security, national security, and raw material for various industries.

Problems of Indian Agriculture

• Fragmentation of landholding.
• Existence of small and marginal farmers.
• Regional variation.
• Dependence on seasonal rainfall.
• Low productivity of land.
• Increasing disguised unemployment.
• Disorder in marketing agricultural products.
• Weak land reformation.

Revolutions in Agriculture

Crop and its Classifications

Agronomy, derived from the Greek words agros (meaning 'field') and nomos (meaning 'management'), is a specialized branch in agriculture dealing with crop production and soil management. Crops refer to plants grown on a large scale for food, clothing, and other human uses.

Classification based on climate

1. Tropical: Crops thriving in warm & hot climates (e.g., Rice, Sugarcane, Jowar).
2. Temperate: Crops thriving in cool climates (e.g., Wheat, Oats, Gram, Potato).

Classification Based on growing season

1. Kharif/Rainy/Monsoon crops: Grown during monsoon months, requiring warm, wet weather (e.g., Cotton, Rice, Jowar).
2. Rabi/winter/cold seasons crops: Grown in winter, thriving in cold and dry weather (e.g., Wheat, Gram, Sunflower).
3. Summer/Zaid crops: Grown in summer, requiring warm dry weather (e.g., Groundnuts, Watermelon, Pumpkins).

Agronomic Classification of Crops

Various categories include Cereals, Millets, Pulses or Grain Legumes, Oil Seed Crops, Sugar Crops, Starch Crops or Tuber Crops, Fibre Crops, Narcotics, Forage and Fodder Crops, Plantation Crops, Spices and Condiments, Medicinal plants, Aromatic plants.

Classification based on life of crops/duration of crops

1. Seasonal crops: Complete life cycle in one season (e.g., Rice, Jowar, Wheat).
2. Two seasonal crops: Complete life cycle in two seasons (e.g., Cotton, Turmeric, Ginger).
3. Annual crops: Require one full year to complete the life cycle (e.g., Sugarcane).
4. Biennial crops: Require two years to complete the life cycle (e.g., Banana, Papaya).
5. Perennial crops: Live for several years (e.g., Fruit crops, Mango, Guava).

Classification based on cultural method/water

1. Rain-fed: Cultivated based on rainwater availability (e.g., Jowar, Bajara, Mung).
2. Irrigated crops: Cultivated with irrigation water (e.g., Chili, Sugarcane, Banana).

Classification based on root system

1. Tap root system: Main root goes deep into the soil (e.g., Tur, Grape, Cotton).
2. Fiber-rooted: Roots are fibrous, shallow, and spreading (e.g., Cereal crops, Wheat, Rice).

Classification based on economic importance

1. Cash crop: Grown for earning money (e.g., Sugarcane, Cotton).
2. Food crops: Grown for raising food grain for the population and fodder for cattle (e.g., Jowar, Wheat, Rice).

Classification based on No. of cotyledons

1. Monocots or monocotyledons: One cotyledon in the seed (e.g., Cereals & Millets).
2. Dicots or dicotyledonous: Two cotyledons in the seed (e.g., Legumes & Pulses, Trees).

Classification based on length of photoperiod required for floral initiation

Plants classified as Short-day plants (flower initiation with short days), Long day’s plants (flower initiation with long days), and Day-neutral plants (photoperiod has little influence).

Tillage

Tillage, the mechanical manipulation of soil using tools and implements, aims to create ideal conditions for seed germination, seedling establishment, and crop growth. Tilth, the physical condition of soil resulting from tillage, can be coarse, fine, or moderate based on crop requirements and soil conditions.

Types of Tillage

Tillage operations are grouped into on-season and off-season tillage.

On-season Tillage

Operations performed within the crop season or at its onset include preparatory tillage. Preparatory tillage involves deep opening and loosening of the soil to achieve desirable tilth, control weeds, and manage crop stubble.

Types of Preparatory Tillage:

1. Primary Tillage: Done after crop harvest to bring the land under cultivation, typically involving ploughing with various types of ploughs.
2. Secondary Tillage: Performed after primary tillage to improve soil tilth, consisting of lighter operations like harrowing and planking.

Dry Tillage Practiced for crops sown or planted in dry land conditions with sufficient moisture for seed germination (e.g., wheat, oilseeds, pulses).

Wet or Puddling Tillage Performed in land with standing water, involving ploughing in standing water to create a soft seed bed, commonly used for planting rice.

Off-season Tillage

Done to condition the soil for the upcoming main season crop, including post-harvest, summer, winter, and fallow tillage.

Special Purpose Tillage

1. Sub Soiling: Involves chiselling to break hard pans beneath the plough layer, reducing compaction.
2. Clean Tillage: Works the entire field to control weeds, soil-borne pathogens, and pests.
3. Blind Tillage: Performed after seeding or planting to uproot extra plants and broad-leaved weeds without damaging crop plants.
4. Zero Tillage: Involves planting a new crop in residues of the previous crop without prior soil tillage, suitable for weed control using herbicides.

Advantages of Zero Tillage

1. Homogeneous soil structure with increased earthworm activity.
2. Increased organic matter content due to less mineralization.
3. Reduced surface runoff and erosion due to the presence of mulch.

Disadvantages of Zero Tillage

1. Higher nitrogen application for organic matter mineralization.
2. Potential issues with perennial weeds.
3. Increased number of volunteer plants and pest buildup.

Cropping

Cropping intensity: The number of crops cultivated in a piece of land per annum is known as cropping intensity. For example, Punjab and Tamil Nadu have a cropping intensity exceeding 100%, around 140-150%, while Rajasthan has lower cropping intensity.

Cropping pattern: The yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops and fallow on a given area is termed cropping pattern.

Cropping system: It involves the cropping pattern used on a farm and its interactions with farm resources, other farm enterprises, and available technology that determine their makeup.

Multiple cropping

 Growing more than two crops in a piece of land in an orderly succession, often called intensive cropping, requires assured resources like land, labor, capital, and water.

• Double cropping: Growing two crops a year in sequence (e.g., Rice - Pulse).
• Triple cropping: Growing three crops a year in sequence (e.g., Rice - Rice - Pulse).
• Quadruple cropping: Growing four crops in a year in sequence.
• Monoculture: Repetitive growing of the same sole crop in the same land.
• Mono cropping: Continuous production of the same crop year after year.
• Sole cropping: Growing one crop variety alone in a pure stand at normal density.

Sequential cropping

Growing two or more crops in sequence on the same field in a year, with the succeeding crop planted after the preceding crop has been harvested.

• Relay cropping: Growing the succeeding crop immediately before the harvest of the standing crops.
• Ratoon cropping: Raising a crop with regrowth from roots or stocks of the harvested crop.

Intercropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously with distinct row arrangement on the same field at the same time.

Advantages of Intercropping

• Better use of growth resources, including light, nutrients, and water.
• Suppression of weeds.
• Yield stability even if one crop fails, providing some secured income.
• Higher equivalent yields with reduced pest and disease incidence.
• Improvement of soil health and agro-ecosystem.

Examples of Intercropping:

• Maize + Cowpea.
• Sorghum + Redgram.
• Groundnut + Redgram.
• Potato + Mustard.
• Wheat + Mustard.

Types of Intercropping

• Strip intercropping.
• Parallel cropping.
• Synergistic cropping.
• Additive Series (Paired row intercropping).
• Replacement Series.
• Multi-storey cropping.
• Relay intercropping.
• Alley cropping.

Mixed cropping

Growing two or more crops simultaneously intermingled without row arrangement is known as mixed cropping. It is a common practice in most dryland tracts in India.

Farming Systems

Definitions

• Farm: A piece of land with specific boundaries where crop and livestock enterprises are managed together.
• Farming: The process of harnessing solar energy through economic plant and animal products.
• System: A set of interdependent and interacting components.

Wetland Farming

• Wetland: Soils flooded or irrigated through lakes, ponds, or canals, remaining submerged.
• Wetland Farming: Growing crops in soils flooded by natural water flow for most of the year.

Garden Land / Irrigated Dry Land Farming

• Garden Land: Soils irrigated with groundwater sources.
• Garden Land Farming: Growing crops with supplemental irrigation using water from underground sources.

Dry Land Farming

• Dry Land: Soils relying solely on rainfall for moisture.
• Dry Land Farming: Crop production entirely dependent on rainfall and soil moisture conservation.
• Practiced: In areas with annual rainfall less than 750mm, facing potential moisture stress due to erratic monsoons.

Rainfed Farming

• Rainfed Farming: Crop production in areas with rainfall exceeding 750mm, minimizing moisture stress, with a focus on soil conservation.

Mixed Farming

• Mixed Farming: A farming system on a single farm that includes crop production, livestock, poultry, fisheries, and beekeeping to meet various needs, emphasizing subsistence.
• Advantages:
  • Offers the highest return on farm business by efficiently utilizing resources.
  • Provides year-round employment.
  • Efficiently utilizes land, labor, equipment, and resources.
  • Utilizes crop by-products for feeding livestock.
  • Manure from livestock contributes to soil fertility.
  • Supplies all food needs of the family members.

Specialized Farming

• A farm where 50% or more income is derived from a single crop is termed specialized farming.

Diversified Farming

• Diversified farming involves multiple production enterprises with no single source contributing 50% or more of the total income.
• Also known as general farming.

Crop Rotation

Growing various crops successively on a piece of land is a preplanned sequence. The essence of crop rotation is to maximize resource utilization, ensuring the highest possible yield per unit of land without compromising soil health.

Example: Rice-Red Gram-Banana

Principles of Crop Rotation

• Leguminous Crops First: Prioritize growing leguminous crops before non-leguminous ones. Legumes fix atmospheric nitrogen into the soil and contribute organic matter.
• Root System Consideration: Follow crops with tap roots (e.g., cotton) with those having fibrous root systems (e.g., sorghum or maize) to ensure uniform nutrient utilization.
• Exhaustive Crop Sequencing: Successive crops should involve less exhaustive ones after more exhaustive ones. Crops like potato, sugarcane, and maize require more inputs.
• Selection Based on Need: Choose crops based on demand and requirements.
• Preventing Monoculture: Avoid cultivating crops from the same family consecutively to prevent acting as alternate hosts for insect pests and diseases.
• Consider Financial Conditions: Crop selection should align with the financial capacity of the farmer.
• Suitability to Soil and Climate: The chosen crop should be suitable for the specific soil and climatic conditions.

Sustainable Agriculture

Sustainable agriculture is a farming approach designed to meet the current generation's needs without jeopardizing the resources essential for future generations. It involves a cultivation system that incorporates practices such as the use of manure, crop rotation, minimal tillage, and reduced reliance on synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and antibiotics.

• The focus is on balanced management of renewable resources, encompassing soil, wildlife, forests, crops, fish, livestock, plant genetic resources, and ecosystems, with the aim of preventing degradation while providing food and livelihoods for present and future generations.
• Sustainable agriculture specifically addresses challenges like preventing land degradation, controlling soil erosion, replenishing nutrients, and managing weeds, pests, and diseases through biological and cultural methods. The primary concern is to combat the degradation of natural resources, which poses a significant threat to the sustainable development of agriculture.

Organic Farming

Organic farming is a production system encompassing various agricultural products like grains, meat, dairy, eggs, cotton, flowers, and processed foods, all produced organically. This approach deliberately avoids or significantly minimizes the use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators, and livestock feed additives.

Components of Organic Farming

Organic farming relies on practices such as crop rotations, crop residues, animal manure, legumes, green manure, on/off-farm organic wastes, mechanical cultivation, mineral-bearing rocks, and biological control of pests and diseases. These methods are employed to maintain soil productivity, enhance tilth, and supply plant nutrients.

Scope of Organic Farming

1. It serves as a sustainable agricultural system that maintains and improves soil fertility, ensuring future food security.
2. Reliance on resources from the local area, minimizing dependence on imported resources.
3. Contribution to maintaining the stability of natural ecosystems.

Concepts in Organic Farming

1. Building up biological soil fertility is a fundamental concept.
2. Control of pests, diseases, and weeds through ecological balance and the use of bioagents and cultural techniques.
3. Recycling all wastes and manure within the farm.

The key components include organic manures, non-chemical weed control, and biological pest and disease management.

Principles of Organic Farming

1. Mixed farming.
2. Crop rotation.
3. Optimization of the organic cycle.

Eco-farming

Eco-farming involves mutually reinforcing ecological approaches to food production, aiming for the maintenance of soil in a manner consistent with natural processes. The guiding principle is "feed the soil, not the plant," emphasizing the importance of ecological balance in farming.

Comparison: Organic vs. Inorganic Fertilizers

Permaculture

Bill Mollison, an Australian ecologist, along with his student David Holmgren, introduced the term "permaculture" in 1978, derived from "permanent agriculture" or "permanent culture."

Permaculture is defined as a design system aimed at creating sustainable human environments, utilizing ecology as the foundation for integrated systems covering food production, housing, appropriate technology, and community development.

• This approach is grounded in an ethic of caring for the earth and fostering mutually beneficial interactions with the environment.
• A key focus of Permaculture is the design of ecological landscapes for food production, emphasizing multi-use plants, cultural practices like sheet mulching and trellising, and the integration of animals to recycle nutrients and control weeds.

Characteristics

• Permaculture stands out as one of the most holistic and integrated systems for analysis and design globally. Its application can create productive ecosystems for human use or aid in the recovery of health and wildness in degraded ecosystems, irrespective of their condition.
• The approach values traditional knowledge and experience, incorporating sustainable agriculture practices and land management techniques from various cultures worldwide.
• Acting as a bridge between traditional and emerging earth-tuned cultures, Permaculture advocates for organic agriculture without the use of pesticides. It seeks to maximize symbiotic relationships between site components and tailors its design to be site-specific, client-specific, and culture-specific.

Integrated Farming System

The integration of various farm enterprises, such as cropping systems, animal husbandry, fisheries, forestry, etc., aims at optimizing resource utilization and bringing prosperity to farmers. The choice and adoption of farming system components depend on factors like land availability, type of land, water resources, capital, farmer's technical skills, market facilities, etc.

Benefits of Integrated Farming System

• Provides a consistent income in addition to earnings from regular cropping.
• Offers risk coverage through subsidiary allocations in case of unexpected crop failures.
• Generates employment opportunities.
• Enhances overall productivity.
• Facilitates increased returns and the recycling of organics.
• Readily adopted by marginal and submarginal farmers.
• Leads to the general uplift of farm activities.
• Optimizes the use of land, labor, time, and available manures on the farm.

Elements Required in Plant Growth

1. Macronutrients:

• Nitrogen (N)
• Phosphorous (P)
• Potassium (K)
• Sulfur (S)
• Calcium (Ca)
• Magnesium (Mg)

2. Micronutrients:

• Iron (Fe)
• Zinc (Zn)
• Manganese (Mg)
• Copper (Cu)
• Boron (B)
• Chlorine (Cl)
• Molybdenum (Mo)
• Sodium (Na)
• Cobalt (Co)
• Vanadium (Va)
• Nickel (Ni)
• Silicon (Si)

Role of Manures

1. Organic manures enhance water-holding capacity in sandy soil and promote better root growth in clayey soil.
2. They contribute plant nutrients and essential micro-nutrients.
3. Microbial activity is increased, aiding in the release of nutrients for plants.

Classification of Organic Manures

• Farm Yard Manure: A decomposed mixture of cattle dung, urine, straw, and litter.
• Compost Manure: Well-rotted organic manure prepared by decomposing organic matter.
• Sheep and Goat Droppings: Valuable organic manure containing nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.
• Concentrated Organic Manures: Includes oil cakes, bone meal, and fish meal.

Green Manuring

• It involves ploughing green plants into the soil to enhance physical structure and fertility, e.g., Sannhemp, Dhaicha, Pillipesara, etc.

Bio-fertilizers

• Preparations containing live or latent cells of microorganisms to increase nutrient availability, e.g., nitrogen-fixing Rhizobium, phosphate-solubilizing microorganisms, etc.

Integrated Nutrient Management (INM)

• The judicious combination of organic, inorganic, and biofertilizers to replenish soil nutrients and sustain crop productivity.

Weeds

Weeds are plants that are unwanted and interfere with land and water resources, negatively impacting crop production and human welfare. They exhibit gregarious behavior compared to crop plants.

Harmful effects of weeds

1. Weeds compete with the main crop for space, light, moisture, and soil nutrients, leading to reduced yield.
2. They affect the quality of farm produce and livestock products, such as milk and skin.
3. Weeds act as alternate hosts for pests and pathogens.
4. Some weeds can cause health problems for humans, such as allergies induced by Parthenium.
5. Weeds increase the cost of cultivation due to weed-related issues.
6. Aquatic weeds transpire large quantities of water and obstruct the flow of water.
7. Presence of weeds like cynodon and parthenium can reduce the land value.
8. Some weeds are poisonous to livestock.

Beneficial effects of weeds

• Weeds can act as soil binders.
• They can be used as manure.
• Some weeds serve as human food.
• Weeds can be used as fodder.
• Weeds are utilized as fuel.
• Some weeds can be woven into mats and screens.
• Certain weeds possess medicinal properties and are used in traditional medicine.
• Weeds can serve as indicators of soil quality.

Genetically modified crops (GM crops)

These are plants whose DNA has been modified using genetic engineering techniques for agricultural purposes.

Watershed Management

• A watershed is an area of land and water bounded by a drainage divide. Watershed management involves controlling surface runoff within this area to prevent soil erosion and maintain water resources.

Micro Irrigation

• Micro irrigation is a method where a low volume of water is applied at low pressure and high frequency. It utilizes an extensive network of pipes and emitters for efficient water distribution.

Sprinkler Irrigation

• In this method, water is sprayed into the air and falls on the ground surface, resembling natural rainfall. It is achieved through nozzles or orifices under pressure.

Drip Irrigation

• Also known as trickle irrigation, it involves dripping water onto the soil at low rates through small-diameter plastic pipes fitted with emitters. Water is applied close to plants, wetting only the root zone.

Terracing

• Terracing is the construction of embankments or ridges across a slope to control runoff, minimize soil erosion, and reduce the formation of gullies. It shortens the length of hillside slopes.

Soil

Soils cover Earth's land surface and play a crucial role in the ecosystem. Composed of minerals, organic materials, and open spaces, soils should ideally have about 45% minerals (sand, silt, clay), 5% organic matter, 25% air, and 25% water for optimal plant growth.

Factors influencing soil development

1. Parent material: The rock and minerals influencing soil composition.
2. Climate: Precipitation and temperature leading to partial weathering.
3. Living organisms: Inclusive of various organisms aiding in nutrient recycling.
4. Topography: Physical characteristics of the location affecting soil profile.

A mature soil profile, consisting of horizons labeled O, A, E, B, and C, reaches equilibrium over time. The composition of these horizons varies, and not all profiles contain all horizons.

Soil Components

• Clay: Very fine particles, compacts easily, low permeability to water.
• Gravel: Coarse particles consisting of rock fragments.
• Loam: Balanced mixture of clay, sand, silt, and humus, rich in nutrients.
• Sand: Coarser than silt, suitable for crops requiring low water.
• Silt: Fine particles between sand and clay, easily transported by water.

Soil Texture and Structure

• Soil texture refers to the relative proportion of sand, silt, and clay, while soil structure is the arrangement of particles in a soil mass.

Types of Soils

• Saline soils: High water-soluble salt content affecting crop growth.
• Sodic soils: Predominance of sodium with an exchangeable sodium percentage exceeding 15%.
• Acid soils: Characteristically low pH, leading to nutrient deficiencies.
• Sandy soils: Contain predominant sand with high percolation rates.
• Alkaline soil: Soil with a pH above 7, common in arid regions.
• Calcareous soil: Contains kankar nodules in the plough zone and subsoil.
• Alfisol: Soils with grey to brown surface horizons, formed under forest or savanna vegetation.
• Aridisol: Mineral soils with an aridic moisture regime, found in desert areas.

Processes of Soil Formation

• Laterization: Formation of laterite soils with a hard, brick-like horizon.
• Gleization: Development of a glei horizon due to poor drainage conditions.
• Salinization: Accumulation of salts in soils, common in arid regions.
• Desalinization: Removal of excess soluble salts from the soil profile through leaching.
• Solonization or Alkalization: Accumulation of sodium ions, forming sodic soils.
• Solodization or dealkalization: Removal of sodium ions, involving clay dispersion.

Environmental Issues Related to Soil

• Desertification: Productive potential reduction in arid or semi-arid land due to human activity or climate change.
• Salinization: Accumulation of dissolved salts in topsoil, affecting crop growth.
• Water logging: Saturation of soil leading to a rise in the water table.

Additional Information

• Loam soils generally contain more nutrients and humus than sandy soils.
• Topsoil color indicates its richness in nitrogen; brown or black is good for crops, while gray, yellow, or red is poor.

Stages of Soil Erosion

Splash Erosion

• Splash erosion marks the initial stage, triggered when raindrops impact bare soil, breaking up soil aggregates and splashing individual particles onto the surface.

Sheet Erosion

• Sheet erosion involves the uniform movement of a thin soil layer across vegetation-deprived land. Raindrops detach soil particles, which dissolve in runoff and are transported downstream.

Rill Erosion

• Rill erosion follows as sheet flows concentrate, leaving visible scouring on the landscape. It becomes apparent with increased rain duration or intensity.

Gully Erosion

• Rill erosion progresses into gully erosion with continued rain intensity, forming scoured areas impassable with regular equipment.

Ammonification

• Ammonification is the production of ammonia resulting from the biological decomposition of organic nitrogen compounds.

Border Cropping

• Border cropping involves growing crops on the border areas of a plot or field, for example, using safflower as a border crop in potato cultivation.

Border Strip Irrigation

• Efficient irrigation method dividing the field into flooded strips, suitable for closely spaced crops.

Allelopathy

• Allelopathy refers to the harmful effects of one plant on another through the exudation of toxic substances from roots or decomposed crop residues.

C:N Ratio

• The C:N ratio represents the weight ratio of organic carbon to total nitrogen in the soil.

Check Basin

• Check basin is an irrigation method using beds and channels to retain water, forming a pond.

Hard Pan

• Hard pan is an impermeable layer in the soil profile, formed by the accumulation of materials like salts and clay, impeding drainage.

Growth Regulators

• Growth regulators are organic substances, such as auxins and cytokinins, participating in the control of growth processes.

Heliophytes and Sciophytes

• Heliophytes are sun-loving plants (e.g., Rice, Wheat), while sciophytes are shade-loving plants requiring less light intensity.

Heliotropism

• Heliotropism is the movement of plant parts toward the sun, as seen in sunflowers.

Geotropism

• Geotropism is a growth movement in response to gravity, like the groundnut peg's penetration into the soil.

Herbicide and Insecticide

• Herbicides are chemicals used to kill or inhibit unwanted plants (e.g., Atrazine), while insecticides are chemicals for killing insects (e.g., Endosulfan).

Hidden Hunger

• Hidden hunger occurs when plants show no visual deficiency symptoms but experience nutrient shortages, leading to yield losses.

Humus

• Humus is a brown or black organic substance from partially or wholly decayed plant or animal matter, providing nutrients and enhancing soil water retention.

Mulching

• Mulching involves covering the soil with materials like plant residues or plastic film to reduce evaporation, suppress weed growth, and maintain soil temperature.

Puddling

• Puddling is a plowing operation conducted in waterlogged conditions to create an impervious layer beneath the plow pan.

Shifting Cultivation, Subsidiary Farming, and Subsistence Farming

Shifting cultivation involves clearing forest for temporary crop cultivation based on soil fertility. Subsidiary farming is settled farming in river banks in addition to gathering and hunting. Subsistence farming is growing crops only for family needs, not commercially.

Miyawaki Method for Creating Forests

The Miyawaki method, pioneered by Akira Miyawaki, builds dense native forests by planting dozens of native species in the same area. It ensures rapid plant growth and a dense plantation, becoming maintenance-free after the first three years.

System of Rice Intensification (SRI)

SRI, emerging in the 1980s, combines practices like changes in nursery management, transplanting timing, and water management to intensify rice production. It follows the principle of 'More with Less,' increasing yield with less water and reduced chemical inputs.