Shivaji and the early Maratha Kingdom | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Rise of Marathas in the 17th Century

• The Maratha Empire, also known as the Maratha Confederacy, was a major Indian imperial power from 1674 to 1818, covering over 2.8 million square kilometers at its peak.
• It played a crucial role in ending the Mughal Empire in India.
• The Marathas originated as a yeoman warrior group in the western Deccan and gained prominence during the Adil Shahi dynasty and the Sultanate of Ahmadnagar.
• Shivaji Bhosle declared himself Chhatrapati ("Emperor") in 1674, with Raigad as his capital, and challenged the Mughal Empire, laying the foundation of the Maratha Empire.

Early Conflicts and Tactics:

• Shivaji led the Marathas in a prolonged struggle against the Mughal Empire from 1681 to 1707, the longest war in Indian history.
• He pioneered guerrilla tactics, known as "Shiva Sutra" or Ganimi Kava, to outmaneuver larger and more powerful foes.
• Venkoji, Shivaji's half-brother, established the Thanjavur Maratha kingdom.

Expansion and Administration:

• After Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb's death, Shivaji's grandson, Shahu, became the ruler of the Maratha Empire after a brief struggle with his aunt Tarabai.
• Shahu appointed Balaji Vishwanath Bhat and his descendants as Peshwas (prime ministers), who played a key role in expanding the empire.
• At its zenith, the Maratha Empire stretched from Tamil Nadu in the south to Peshawar in the north and Bengal and the Andaman Islands in the east.

Challenges and Decline:

• The Maratha army faced a significant defeat at the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761 against Abdali's Afghan Durrani Empire, which curtailed their imperial ambitions.
• Ten years later, Madhavrao Peshwa restored Maratha authority in North India and reorganized the empire by granting semi-autonomy to powerful regional leaders.
• This led to the formation of a Maratha confederacy with prominent families like the Gaekwads, Holkars, Scindias, and Bhonsales.

Conflicts with the British:

• The British East India Company intervened in Maratha disputes in Pune, leading to the First Anglo-Maratha War.
• The Marathas remained a dominant force in India until their defeat in the Second and Third Anglo-Maratha Wars (1805-1818), which transferred control of India to the British East India Company.

Maratha Naval Power:

• The Maratha Empire also had a strong navy, led by commanders like Kanhoji Angre, who successfully defended the coastline against enemies, particularly the Portuguese and the British.
• Their strategy included securing coastal areas and building land-based fortresses.

Brief History

Shivaji and the Founding of the Maratha Empire:

• In 1674, Shivaji officially established an independent Hindu Maratha kingdom, declaring himself Chhatrapati with Raigad as its capital. This followed his successful guerrilla warfare against the Adil Shahi dynasty of Bijapur and the Mughal Empire led by Aurangzeb.
• Shivaji passed away in 1680, leaving behind a vast kingdom. Soon after his death, the Mughals launched a lengthy and ultimately unsuccessful war against the Marathas, lasting from 1681 to 1707.

Shahu and the Rise of the Peshwas:

• Shivaji's grandson, Shahu, ruled as Emperor until 1749. During his reign, Shahu appointed the first Peshwa as the head of administration under specific circumstances.
• After Shahu's death in 1749, the Peshwas became the de facto rulers of the Maratha Empire, while Shivaji's descendants ruled as nominal kings from Satara.

The Maratha Empire at its Height:

• Under Shahu and Peshwa Baji Rao I, the Maratha Empire reached its zenith in the 18th century, covering most of the Indian subcontinent and keeping the British at bay.
• However, the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761 marked a turning point, weakening the empire and diminishing Peshwa control.

Decline and Fragmentation:

• After the heavy losses at Panipat, the Peshwas struggled to maintain authority, and various military leaders like Shinde, Holkar, Gaikwad, and others sought to become independent rulers in their regions.
• Despite these challenges, Maratha rule in North India was restored under Madhavrao Peshwa a decade after the battle.

Confederacy and Rivalries:

• Following Madhavrao's death, the empire fractured into a loose Confederacy led by five main dynasties: the Peshwas of Pune, the Sindhias of Malwa and Gwalior, the Holkars of Indore, the Bhonsles of Nagpur, and the Gaekwads of Baroda.
• The Confederacy was marked by rivalry, particularly between the Sindhias and Holkars, and faced conflicts with the British and the British East India Company during the three Anglo-Maratha Wars.

British Conquest and Legacy:

• The last Peshwa, Baji Rao II, was defeated by the British in the Third Anglo-Maratha War in 1818.
• Although most of the Maratha Empire was incorporated into British India, several provinces remained British vassals until India gained independence in 1947.

The Bhosle Era (1674–1749)

Shivaji Maharaj

Shivaji and the Maratha Empire:

• Shivaji was a member of the Bhosle clan and a Maratha noble who played a crucial role in establishing the Maratha Empire.
• He led a revolt to reclaim Hindavi Swarajya, aiming for self-rule for the Hindu people and to liberate them from the Sultanate of Bijapur.
• Shivaji founded an independent Maratha kingdom with Raigad as its capital. He successfully defended his kingdom against the powerful Mughal Empire.
• In 1674, Shivaji was crowned as the Chhatrapati, or Sovereign, marking the official establishment of the Maratha Empire.

Sambhaji

• Sambhaji and Rajaram were the two sons of Shivaji, the founder of the Maratha Empire. Sambhaji, the elder son, was very popular among the courtiers.
• Sambhaji became king in 1681 and continued his father's policies of expanding the empire. He had previously defeated the Portuguese and Chikka Deva Raya of Mysore.
• In 1681, Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb moved south to break the alliance between the Rajputs and Marathas, as well as to conquer the Deccan Sultanates.
• Aurangzeb aimed to conquer the entire Maratha Empire and the Sultanates of Bijapur and Golconda, bringing with him a large army of over 500,000 soldiers, along with his imperial court and administration.
• Sambhaji led the Marathas for the next eight years and was successful in defending against Aurangzeb, never losing a battle or a fort.
• Except for a single incident in early 1689, Aurangzeb faced significant challenges in his campaign against Sambhaji.
• Sambhaji held a strategic meeting at Sangameshwar with his commanders to plan a final attack on the Mughal forces.
• However, during this meeting, Sambhaji was ambushed and captured by Mughal forces led by Mukarrab Khan.
• On February 1, 1689, Sambhaji was kidnapped and taken to Bahadurgad along with his advisor, Kavi Kalash.
• Both Sambhaji and Kavi Kalash were executed on March 11, 1689, for rebelling against the Mughal Empire.

Rajaram and Tarabai

Rajaram's Struggle and Maratha Resilience:

• After Sambhaji's death, his half-brother Rajaram became the ruler but faced a siege at Raigad by the Mughal army.
• Rajaram managed to escape to Vishalgad and then to Ginge for safety.
• Maratha leaders like Santaji Ghorpade, Dhanaji Jadhav, Parshuram Pant Pratinidhi, Shankaraji Narayan Sacheev, and Melgiri Pandit launched attacks into Mughal territory, reclaiming various forts.
• Despite Rajaram's offer of a truce in 1697, Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb rejected it.
• Rajaram died in Sinhagad in 1700, and his widow Tarabai assumed power in the name of her son Ramaraja (Shivaji II).
• Tarabai led the Marathas against the Mughals, crossing the Narmada River into Malwa, a region under Mughal control.
• The Battle of Malwa marked a significant victory for the Maratha Empire, diminishing Mughal dominance in the Indian subcontinent.
• The Marathas, under the leadership of warriors and commanders, expanded the empire and set the stage for future conquests under the Peshwas.
• Ramchandra Pant Amatya Bawdekar, originally a local Kulkarni, rose to the position of Ashtapradhan with Shivaji's support.
• Rajaram bestowed upon Pant the title of "Hukumat Panha" (King Status) before leaving the Maratha Empire in 1689.
• Ramchandra Pant managed the entire state during challenging times marked by Mughal invasions, betrayal by local Vatandars, and societal issues like food scarcity.
• Sachiv and Pantpratinidhi worked together to maintain the economic stability of the Maratha Empire.
• Pant wrote Adnyapatra, detailing battle strategies, fort maintenance, and administration.

Shahu

• Shahuji, son of Sambhaji and grandson of Shivaji, was released by Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah I after Aurangzeb's death.
• To ensure Shahuji adhered to Mughal conditions, he was made a vassal and his mother was held as a hostage.
• Shahuji claimed the Maratha throne, challenging his aunt Tarabai to a duel.
• The Mughal-Maratha conflict evolved into a three-way battle due to the succession dispute, leading to the formation of the principalities of Satara and Kolhapur.
• By 1710, the two independent principalities were established, later confirmed by the Treaty of Warna in 1731.

Furrukhsiyar and the Saiyids (1713):

• Furrukhsiyar declared himself Mughal Emperor in 1713, relying on the support of the Saiyid brothers.
• The Saiyids, governors of Allahabad and Patna, had a conflict with the Emperor.

The Marathas and Mughal Power Struggles (1714):

• Negotiations between the Saiyids and Peshwas were tense.
• Balaji Vishwanath, a representative of Shahu, involved the Marathas in the Mughal power struggle.
• In 1714, Maratha leader Parsoji Bhosale led an army to Delhi, overseeing the deposition of the Mughal ruler.

Shahuji's Agreements and Expansions:

• Balaji Vishwanath negotiated a significant treaty for Shahuji.
• Shahuji had to accept Mughal sovereignty, provide troops for the imperial army, and pay annual tribute.
• In return, he received a farman promising Swaraj in the Maratha homeland and rights to chauth and sardeshmukh throughout Gujarat, Malwa, and the six provinces of the Mughal Deccan.
• Yesubai, Shahuji’s mother, was freed from Mughal captivity as part of this agreement.

Expansion Under Shahuji's Reign:

• Raghuji Bhosale expanded the kingdom eastward into present-day Bangladesh.
• Senapati Dabhade expanded the kingdom westward.
• Peshwa Bajirao and his allies Pawar(Dhar),Holkar(Indore), and Scindia(Gwalior) expanded into the north.
• These houses became hereditary over time, diminishing the king’s authority.

The Peshwa Era (1749 to 1761)

• Peshwas from the Bhat family ruled the Maratha army during this time and ultimately became the hereditary rulers of the Maratha Empire from 1749 to 1818. The Maratha empire reached its pinnacle during their reign, dominating most of the Indian Subcontinent.
• Prior to 1700, a Peshwa may hold the position of imperial regent for up to eight years. With the support of Sardars like Holkar, Scindia, Bhosale, and Gaekwad, they supervised the greatest growth of the Maratha Empire around 1760. (Dhane).
• Other generals involved in the expansion included Pantpratinidhi, Panse, Vinchurkar, Pethe, Raste, Phadke, Patwardhan, Pawar, Pandit,Purandare, and Mehendale. In 1818, the British East India Company annexed the peshwa-controlled regions.

Baji Rao I

• Baji Rao I, a renowned general, served as Peshwa under Chhatrapati Shahu from 1720 until his death in 1740. He was undefeated in battle throughout his career and is credited with expanding the Maratha Empire, which reached its peak twenty years after his death.
• Peshwa Baji Rao is believed to have fought in over 41 wars without suffering a defeat. One of the notable battles he fought was the Battle of Palkhed, which took place on February 28, 1728, near the village of Palkhed in Maharashtra. In this battle, Baji Rao I faced the Nizam-ul-Mulk of Hyderabad and emerged victorious, showcasing exceptional military strategy.
• Another significant conflict during Baji Rao I's reign was the Battle of Vasai, fought between the Marathas and the Portuguese rulers of Vasai, a village near present-day Mumbai, Maharashtra. The Marathas, led by Chimaji Appa, Baji Rao I's brother, achieved a notable victory in this battle, further strengthening Baji Rao I's legacy.

Balaji Baji Rao

• In 1740, the Maratha armies descended on Arcot and defeated Dost Ali, the Nawab of Arcot, in the Damalcherry Pass. Dost Ali, one of his sons, Hasan Ali, and a number of significant figures perished in the ensuing conflict. This early accomplishment immediately raised the Maratha's status in the south.
• The Marathas travelled to Arcot from Damalcherry. It didn't put up much of a fight and surrendered to them. In December 1740, Raghuji invaded Trichinopoly. Chanda Saheb, unable to resist, surrendered the fort to Raghuji on Ram Navami, 14 March 1741. Chanda Saheb and his son were apprehended and taken to Nagpur for questioning.

Following the successful Karnatak campaign and the Battle of Trichinopolly

Raghuji's Conquests and Agreements (1741-1751):

• Raghuji returned from Karnatak and led six missions to Bengal between 1741 and 1748.
• He permanently annexed Odisha to his kingdom by exploiting the chaos in Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha after the death of Governor Murshid Quli Khan in 1727.
• Raghuji's forces devastated Bengal and parts of Bihar while battling in Odisha.
• In 1751, Nawab Alivardi Khan of Bengal ceded Cuttack up to the Subarnarekha River and agreed to pay Rs. 1.2 million annually to Raghuji in lieu of the Chauth of Bengal and Bihar.
• Raghuji's illegitimate son,Mohansingh, seized minor Chhattisgarh states like Raipur, Ratanpur, Bilaspur, and Sambalpur under Bhaskar Ram's command.
• By the end of his career,Raghuji had conquered all of Berar, the Gond kingdoms of Devgad (including Nagpur, Gadha-Mandla, and Chandrapur), the Suba of Cuttack, and smaller states around Nagpur and Cuttack.

Nanasaheb and Raghunath Rao's Contributions:

• Nanasaheb improved agriculture, protected peasants, and significantly enhanced the state’s condition.
• Raghunath Rao,Nanasaheb’s brother, invaded Northwest India after the Afghan withdrawal following Ahmed Shah Abdali’s conquest of Delhi in 1756.
• In August 1757, Raghunath Rao led a Maratha force to defeat the Afghan garrison in the Battle of Delhi, establishing Maratha prominence in Northwest India.
• The Marathas became significant players in Lahore and Delhi following these victories.

Raghoba’s letter to Peshwa Balaji Bajirao, 4 May 1758

• Lahore, Multan, Kashmir, and other regions on this side of the Attock River are mostly under our control. The areas not yet under our rule will soon be brought into our domain.
• Ahmad Shah Durrani's son,Timur Shah Durrani, and Jahan Khan have been pursued by our troops, who have completely looted their forces. Both of them have now reached Peshawar with a handful of weakened soldiers.
• Ahmad Shah Durrani has retreated to Kandahar with around 12,000 to 14,000 broken troops. He has lost control over a vast region, and many have risen against him. We plan to extend our rule all the way to Kandahar.
• The Marathas captured Peshawar on May 8, 1758, defeating Afghan soldiers in theBattle of Peshawar.
• In 1759, the Marathas, led by Sadashivrao Bhau, sent a large force to North India in response to the Afghans' return.
• Various Maratha forces under Holkar,Scindia,Gaikwad, and Govind Pant Bundele supported Bhau's force.
• In August 1760, a joint force of over 100,000 troops recaptured Delhi, the former Mughal capital, from an Afghan garrison.
• Previous attacks had left Delhi in ruins, leading to a severe shortage of supplies in the Maratha camp.
• Bhau ordered the sacking of the city, which was already deserted. His nephew,Vishwasrao, is believed to have had ambitions for the Mughal throne.
• With the fall of the Nizam in the Deccan in 1760, Maratha power peaked, controlling over 2,800,000 km².
• Ahmad Shah Durrani, also known as Rohillas,sought the help of the Nawab of Oudh to expel the Marathas from Delhi.
• On January 14, 1761, the Third Battle of Panipat occurred, where vast armies of Muslim soldiers and Marathas clashed. The Maratha army was defeated, marking the end of their imperial expansion.
• The Marathas faced opposition from the Jats and Rajputs. Their absence was crucial to the battle's outcome.
• The Jats and Rajputs were angered by the Marathas for imposing heavy taxes, punishing them for fighting the Mughals, and interfering in their internal matters.
• Raja Suraj Mal of Bharatpur and the Rajputs abandoned the Maratha alliance at Agra before the battle, withdrawing their troops.
• Sadashivrao Bhau, the Maratha general, ignored advice to leave soldiers' families and pilgrims behind at Agra, taking them to the battlefield instead.
• The Marathas lost their supply chains, previously guaranteed by Raja Suraj Mal and the Rajputs, leading to their downfall.

The Confederacy era (1761–1818)

• Following the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761, the Maratha Empire struggled to maintain control.
• Peshwa Madhav Rao I, despite his weak health, worked hard to rebuild the empire and restore Maratha dominance in North India.

Creation of Semi-Autonomous States:

• To manage the vast territory effectively, the Peshwa granted semi-autonomy to powerful regional leaders.
• This led to the emergence of semi-autonomous states such as:
• Peshwas of Pune
• Gaekwads of Baroda
• Puars (or Pawars) of Dewas& Dhar
• Holkars of Indore and Malwa
• Scindias of Gwalior and Ujjain
• Bhonsales of Nagpur(not related by blood to Shivaji or Tarabai)

Regional Power Dynamics:

• Even in Maharashtra, several knights were given semi-autonomous control over small districts, leading to the formation of princely states like Sangli, Aundh, Bhor, Bawda, Phaltan, and Miraj.
• The Pawars of Udgir were also part of this confederacy.

Role of Mahadaji Shinde:

• Mahadaji Shinde, ruler of Gwalior, played a crucial role in restoring Maratha power after the Panipat defeat.
• He became a trusted ally of both the Peshwa and Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II.

Restoration of Maratha Supremacy:

• Mahadaji took advantage of British neutrality to re-establish Maratha dominance in Northern India.
• Benoît de Boigne assisted Mahadaji by strengthening Sindhia’s forces, which became a major power in northern India.

Conquests and Conflicts:

• Mahadaji faced challenges from feudal lords and Rajput kingdoms, leading to military campaigns in Bhopal, Datiya, Chanderi, Narwar, Salbai, and Gohad.
• He captured Gwalior Fort in 1783, which became a significant victory for the Marathas.

Control Over Delhi:

• Ten years after the Maratha collapse, Mahadaji recovered Delhi in 1771 and installed Shah Alam II as a puppet ruler, gaining significant power and titles from the Mughals.
• He was appointed deputy Vakil-ul-Mutlak and head of the amirs, consolidating Maratha influence in Northern India.

Military Campaigns and Expansions:

• Mahadaji led successful campaigns against the Nizam of Hyderabad and extended Maratha borders.
• He played a crucial role in the Battle of Gajendragad, where the Marathas defeated Tipu Sultan, expanding their territory.
• Mahadaji’s troops also defeated Ismail Beg and controlled Delhi, reinstating Shah Alam II and ensuring Maratha dominance.

Conflict with Neighbors:

• Mahadaji’s forces clashed with the Nizam of Hyderabad, reducing the Nizam’s influence in North India.
• After a ceasefire with Tipu Sultan in 1792, Mahadaji used his influence to prevent a treaty against Tipu, showcasing his diplomatic skills.

Maharaja Yashwantrao Holkar

• After the Battle of Poona, Yashwantrao Holkar took charge of the Maratha state administration when the Peshwa fled.
• On March 13, 1803, he appointed Amrutrao as the new Peshwa and moved to Indore. This new arrangement was accepted by most, except for the Gaikwad chief of Baroda, who had already entered into a treaty with the British for protection on July 26, 1802.
• In 1805, Yashwantrao Holkar signed a treaty with the British that aligned with his goals.
• He successfully resolved disputes with Scindia and the Peshwa, earning a reputation for his extraordinary military feats, which were among the most remarkable in Indian history.
• His efforts to unify the Maratha Confederacy showcased his organizational skills alongside his fighting prowess. He established a strong military foundation for the various branches of the army.
• Yashwantrao Holkar is regarded as one of India's greatest military strategists, known for his military brilliance, political acumen, and relentless work ethic, all highlighted by his significant victories.
• He is remembered as a heroic and romantic figure in Indian history, rising to power from obscurity through his determination and adventurous spirit.
• His formidable personality deterred any attacks on his land during chaotic times, ensuring the Holkar State's security for years even after his passing.

British Intervention

• In 1775, the British East India Company intervened in a succession dispute in Pune, supporting Raghunathrao (Raghobadada), which marked the beginning of the First Anglo-Maratha War.
• The war concluded in 1782 with the restoration of the pre-war status quo, following the Battle of Vadgaon, where the Marathas, led by Tukojirao Holkar and Mahadaji Shinde, defeated the British.

British Intervention in Baroda and Treaty Agreements:

• In 1802, the British intervened in Baroda to support the heir against rival claimants and signed a treaty with the new Maharaja, recognizing his independence from the Maratha Empire in exchange for acknowledging British supremacy.
• Peshwa Baji Rao II signed a similar peace agreement during the Second Anglo-Maratha War(1803–1805).

Yashwantrao Holkar's Reign and Conflicts:

• Yashwantrao Holkar was crowned King in 1799 and expanded his kingdom by conquering Ujjain and campaigning in the north.
• He criticized Peshwa Baji Rao II’s policies and defeated him in the Battle of Poona in May 1802.
• After the battle, Yashwantrao Holkar took charge of the Maratha state administration, appointing Amrutrao as Peshwa and traveling to Indore.

Treaty with the British and Attempts at Unification:

• In 1805, Yashwantrao Holkar signed a treaty with the British that aligned with his goals and resolved conflicts with Scindia and the Peshwa.
• He attempted to unify the Maratha Confederacy but was unsuccessful.

The Third Anglo-Maratha War and Loss of Independence:

• The Third Anglo-Maratha War(1817–1818) was a final attempt to reclaim sovereignty but resulted in the loss of Maratha independence and British control over most of India.
• The Peshwa was exiled to Bithoor (near Kanpur) as a British pensioner, and most of the Maratha stronghold, including Pune, came under direct British rule.
• States like Gwalior, Indore, and Nagpur became princely states under British ‘paramountcy,’ while other small princely realms of Maratha knights were maintained under the British Raj.

Treaty of Gwailor and British Expansion:

• All Maratha powers surrendered to the British, leading to the Treaty of Gwailor on November 5, 1817.
• Shinde agreed to assist the British against the Pindaris in exchange for the submission of Rajasthan.
• Holkar was defeated on December 21, 1817, and signed the Treaty of Mandeswar on January 6, 1818, making the Holkar state a British colony.
• Malhar Rao, a young prince, was elevated to the throne.

Defeats and Surrender:

• Bhonsle was defeated and captured on November 26, 1817, but managed to flee to Jodhpur.
• The Peshwa surrendered on June 3, 1818, and was transferred to Bithur as per the treaty terms.
• Karim Khan and Wasim Mohammad, Pindari chiefs, surrendered, while Setu was killed by a tiger.

British Control and the End of Resistance:

• Under the British East India Company, the British gained control over almost all of modern-day India south of the Sutlej River.
• The Company acquired the Nassak Diamond as part of the war spoils.
• By taking significant lands from the Maratha Empire, the British ended their fiercest rival.
• The British criticized the conditions of surrender offered to the Peshwa as too lenient, comparing him to Napoleon.
• After the war, Trimbakji Dengale was captured and spent his life in the Bengal fortress of Chunar.
• With all active resistance quelled, John Malcolm played a key role in capturing and pacifying the remaining fugitives.

Administration

• Peshwa: Prime Minister, supervises the administration in the Emperor's absence.
• Mutalik: Deputy to the Peshwa, assists the Emperor.
• Rajadnya: Deputy to the Crown, assists in military and land administration.
• Sardar: Manages military forces and land administration.
• Mazumdar: Auditor for financial management.
• Amatya: Chief Revenue Minister.
• Navis/Waqia Mantri: Records daily activities of the royal family.
• Sur Navis/Sacheev: Imperial Secretary, oversees correspondence.
• Sumant/Dabir: Foreign Minister, manages foreign affairs.
• Pandit: Adjudicates religious disputes and promotes education.
• Nyayadhish: Chief Justice.

Peshwa Role:

• The Peshwa, established by Emperor Shivaji, was akin to a modern Prime Minister, distributing administrative duties effectively as the Maratha Empire expanded.
• Initially commanding the Maratha army, Peshwas later became hereditary governors from 1749 to 1818.
• Under their leadership, the Maratha Empire reached its zenith, dominating much of the Indian subcontinent.
• The Peshwas also facilitated the formal incorporation of the Maratha Empire into the British Empire through the British East India Company in 1818.

Secular Governance and Administration:

• The Marathas practiced a secular governance philosophy, allowing unrestricted religious freedom.
• Prominent Muslims such as Ibrahim Khan Gardi, Haider Ali Kohari, Daulat Khan, Siddi Ibrahim, Jiva Mahal, and others played significant roles in the Maratha military and administration.
• Shivaji was an astute administrator who recognized the importance of a well-organized administration, including aspects like cabinet, foreign affairs, and internal intelligence.
• He was viewed as a welfare-minded monarch, treating people well and being fair in matters of reward and punishment. Historian Cosme da Guarda noted his good treatment of people and his strict observance of agreements.
• Shivaji was loved by his people for his impartiality in rewards and punishments, promoting soldiers based on merit.

Later Marathas and Criticism:

• The later Marathas are remembered more for their military campaigns than for administration.
• Hindu historians have criticized the Marathas for their treatment of Jats and Rajputs. Historian K. Roy noted that the treatment of co-religionists Jats and Rajputs was unfair, leading to consequences in Panipat where Muslim forces united against the Marathas.

Geography

The Maratha Empire: A Powerful Force in South Asia:

• At its height, the Maratha Empire controlled a vast area of the Indian Subcontinent, which includes present-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and parts of Nepal and Afghanistan.
• The Marathas not only conquered many regions but also had numerous tributaries that paid a regular tax called "Chauth."
• They defeated several powerful opponents, including the Sultanate of Mysore led by Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan, the Nawabs of Oudh, Bengal, Arcot, and Hyderabad, the Nizam of Hyderabad, and the Mughal Empire.
• The Marathas extracted Chauth from states such as Delhi, Oudh, Bengal, Bihar, Odisha, Punjab, Hyderabad, Mysore, Uttar Pradesh, and Rajputana.
• Their northwestern expansion began in 1758, reaching as far as Afghanistan. They fought against Afghan soldiers in present-day Pakistan and Kashmir.
• Led by Timur Shah, the son of Ahmad Shah Durrani, the Afghan forces numbered between 25,000 and 30,000. The Marathas defeated them, capturing cities like Lahore, Multan, Dera Ghazi Khan, Attock, Peshawar, and parts of Kashmir.
• In 1752, the Nawab of Oudh, Safdarjung, sought Maratha help to defeat the Afghani Rohilla, which the Marathas did, taking control of Rohilkhand.
• The Marathas are also credited with connecting the Andaman Islands to India by establishing naval outposts there.
• During the Confederacy era, Mahadji Sindhia reestablished Maratha power in North India after the Third Battle of Panipat. He brought regions like Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, and the cis-Sutlej states (south of the Sutlej River) under Maratha control.

Legacy

• Founded the Indian Navy and advanced naval combat with a blue-water navy.
• Developed key cities like Pune, Baroda, and Indore.
• Acknowledged the importance of naval forces with gun-mounted ships from 1674.
• Kanhoji Angre, promoted to Darya-Saranga, led the Maratha Navy.
• Controlled the Western coast from Bombay to Vingoria, except Janjira.
• Established guard stations in the Andaman Islands, connecting them to India.
• Attacked ships from the East Indies, including English, Dutch, and Portuguese vessels.
• Harassed colonial powers until his death in 1729, capturing British East India Company ships.
• Resisted joint efforts by the Portuguese and British to defeat him.
• Continued plundering European ships with Maratha leaders Mendhaji Bhatkar and Mainak Bhandari.
• The 'Pal' was a notable Maratha man-of-war with three masts and broadside guns.

Accounts through Afghans and Europeans

Admiration for the Maratha Army:

• The Maratha Empire's enemies, including the Duke of Wellington and Ahmad Shah Abdali, respected the Maratha army, especially its infantry.
• After the Third Battle of Panipat, Abdali felt relieved when the Maratha army, initially strong, began to wane.

Impact of Sadashivrao Bhau:

• Maratha commander Sadashivrao Bhau's attack on the Afghan Army's core was devastating, killing over 3,000 Durrani soldiers, including key commanders.
• This fierce assault caused Afghan soldiers to retreat, leading to a desperate plea from their leader, Shah Wali Khan.

Ahmad Shah Abdali's Acknowledgment:

• In a letter post-battle, Abdali credited the Afghan victory to divine intervention, acknowledging the Marathas' strength despite being outnumbered.
• This letter is preserved in India's National Archives.

Duke of Wellington's Perspective:

• After defeating the Marathas, Wellington noted their infantry and artillery were on par with Europeans, despite poor leadership from their generals.
• He warned British officers not to underestimate the Marathas, particularly in close combat.

Wellesley's Views on Maratha Infantry:

• Even as Prime Minister, Wellesley praised Maratha infantry as among the best globally, despite their generals' shortcomings.

Post-War Recognition:

• After the Third Anglo-Maratha war in 1818, the Marathas agreed to serve the British Empire.
• The British recognized the Marathas as one of the Martial races, acknowledging their infantry's strength.

Maratha Notable Generals and Administrators

• Pant Ramchandra Amatya Bawdekar was a court administrator who rose through the ranks from a local Kulkarni to Ashtapradhan with the guidance and support of Shivaji.
• He was one of the most notable Peshwas during Shivaji's time, before the later Peshwas who dominated the kingdom after Shahuji.
• Before fleeing the Maratha Empire in 1689, Chhatrapati Rajaram bestowed the title of "Hukumat Panha"(King Status) on Pant Ramchandra.
• Pant Ramchandra was in charge of the entire state during a challenging period marked by Mughal invasions, betrayal by Vatandars(local satraps), and societal issues like food scarcity.
• With the support of Pantpratinidhi, he managed to keep the Maratha Empire's economic situation under control.
• He received military assistance from Maratha commanders Santaji Ghorpade and Dhanaji Jadhav and participated in various wars against the Mughals.
• In 1698, when Rajaram offered the position of "Hukumat Panha" to his wife,Tarabai, Pant resigned.
• Pant was given a key position among the leading administrators of the Maratha State by Tarabai.
• He authored the "Adnyapatra," explaining various battle strategies, fort maintenance, and administration.
• However, after Shahuji's arrival in 1707, he was sidelined due to his loyalty to Tarabai against Shahuji, who was supported by many local satraps.

Rise of the Maratha Power : Theoretical Framework

Rise of Maratha Power: Perspectives and Factors:

• Grant Duff: Views the rise of Maratha power as a result of a 'conflagration' in the Sahyadri forests.
• M.G. Ranade: Sees it as a national struggle for independence against foreign rule, challenging the notion of mere accidental circumstances.
• Jadunath Sarkar and G.S. Sardesai: Highlight the emergence of Maratha power as a 'Hindu' reaction against Aurangzeb's religious policies, despite instances of Shivaji praising Akbar's policy of sulh-i-kul.
• Patrons of Marathas: The Muslim rulers of Bijapur and Ahmadnagar were the earliest patrons of the Marathas.
• Shivaji's Focus: Shivaji did not fight for the cause of Hindus outside Maharashtra and did not undertake social reforms within the region.
• Shivaji's Title: The title Haindava dharmoddharak assumed by Shivaji during his coronation was not unique for the time.
• Andre Wink: Attributes the rise of Marathas to growing Mughal pressure on the Sultans of Deccan, a view acknowledged by Grant Duff.
• Satish Chandra: Emphasizes socio-economic factors in the rise of Marathas, particularly Shivaji's ability to mobilize peasants by establishing direct contact and reforming the jagirdari and zamindari systems.
• Shivaji's Strength: Shivaji's military strength was derived from petty landholders rather than feudal levies of bigger deshmukhs.
• Land Control Struggles: Struggles for land control among different classes of deshmukhs and mirasis were prevalent, with political authority tied to land control.
• Social Factors: Shivaji's matrimonial alliances with leading deshmukh families aimed to elevate his family's status and restrict the political power of bigger deshmukhs.
• Coronation Significance: Shivaji's coronation elevated his status among Maratha clans and aligned him with other Deccan rulers.
• Genealogy Claims: Shivaji claimed a superior status through suryavamsi kshatriya genealogy, linking his family to Indra and asserting titles like Kshatriya kulavatamsa.
• Social Tensions: Shivaji's actions reflected social tensions in Maratha society, where agriculturists and fighting classes sought higher status.
• Bhakti Movement: The bhakti movement provided the ideological framework for Maratha rise, emphasizing egalitarianism and enabling social mobility.
• Maharashtra Dharma: Described as aggressive Hinduism, it played a role in Maratha political independence and was utilized by Shivaji against Deccanis and Mughals.
• Religious Sentiments: Maratha religious feelings revolved around deities like Tulaja Bhavani, Vithoba, and Mahadeva, with war-cries like "Har Har Mahadev" resonating with peasantry.
• Chauth and Sardeshmukhi: The collection of chauth and sardeshmukhi across boundaries served as a psychological mobilization tool for peasantry.
• Regional Reaction: Shivaji's actions should be viewed as a regional reaction against Mughal centralization rather than a purely Hindu Swarajya agenda.
• Expansion Factors: The disintegration of Nizam Shahi power and the introduction of the Mughals provided an ideal background for Maratha expansion.