Social Stratification | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction - Social Stratification

Social inequality refers to the disparities that exist within a society due to socially constructed differences. These inequalities can include variations in status, power, and income, which often result from the differences in age, sex, and personal characteristics. A specific form of social inequality is social stratification, which occurs when individuals and groups are ranked according to a common basis of valuation, such as their social positions, resulting in a hierarchy of status levels.
In a stratified society, members are divided into various strata or layers, each having a distinct identity and lifestyle. The Indian caste system serves as an example of such a system. Social stratification involves two essential phenomena: 

• the differentiation of individuals or groups based on certain characteristics, leading to some ranking higher than others, and 
• the ranking of individuals according to a specific evaluation basis. It is important to note that modern stratification differs significantly from that of primitive societies. 

Social Stratification as a process

Social stratification is a multifaceted process in which societies categorize and rank groups according to various factors such as prestige, privileges, wealth, and power. This ranking can be based on ascribed attributes, such as innate qualities or social status, or achieved attributes, like personal accomplishments and acquired skills. The concepts of ascription and achievement serve as fundamental determinants of social stratification across different societies, shaping the norms and principles that govern social hierarchies.

• The emergence of social stratification can be traced back to specific historical developments and societal evolutions. Early hunting and food gathering societies, for instance, exhibited simple social structures and minimal differentiation due to the limited population growth and rudimentary production technologies. While there were individual distinctions based on personal qualities, skills, age, or gender, these societies did not possess a fully-fledged system of social stratification because they lacked substantial economic surplus and wealth accumulation.
• However, the advent of animal husbandry and agriculture brought about significant changes to the social landscape. These innovations resulted in more advanced production technologies, the generation of economic surpluses, and the accumulation of wealth in the form of cattle or food grains. As a consequence, populations began to expand, and trade and exchange of commodities intensified. The invention of tools that could reflect the value of commodities further contributed to the growth of societal sectors with greater control over wealth and power.
• The increasing complexity of social structures and the division of labor led to the emergence of specialized groups and a distinction between rural and urban centers. This development necessitated more elaborate institutions of social control to manage the evolving social realities, such as formalized religious systems, specialized functionaries, and ruling classes. Consequently, social stratification emerged as an institution that fulfilled functional necessities during this historical period.
• There are three primary organizing principles underlying social stratification: status, wealth, and power. Sociological studies of various societies over time have demonstrated the interconnectedness of these principles in any evolutionary process. For example, in societies without formal social stratification, individuals with unique skills, exceptional hunting abilities, or spiritual powers were accorded higher status and considered leaders. However, this did not result in a full-fledged system of social stratification, as it only contributed to social differentiation based on merit, age, gender, or other factors.

Social stratification is a complex process that has evolved over time and is influenced by historical, societal, and technological developments. The institution of social stratification emerged as a result of functional necessities in societies with more complex social structures, economic surpluses, and wealth accumulation. The organizing principles of status, wealth, and power play a crucial role in shaping the dynamics of social stratification, as they contribute to the categorization and ranking of groups within societies. Understanding the intricacies of social stratification is essential for grasping the broader picture of social hierarchies and their impact on individuals and communities.

Definitions of Social Stratification

Social stratification can be understood as the hierarchical organization of individuals and groups in a society, based on various factors such as wealth, power, and status. This process leads to the creation of different social categories, which are ranked on a scale of superiority and inferiority.
Social stratification can be explained as follows:

• According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, social stratification is the ranking of individuals and groups in a relatively stable hierarchy of status. This means that people are placed into different levels of social standing based on their social, economic, and political attributes.
• Lundberg suggests that a stratified society is characterized by inequality and differences among people, which are assessed by the individuals themselves as being either "higher" or "lower" in comparison to others.
• Gisbert defines social stratification as the segmentation of society into distinct groups or categories that are connected through relationships of dominance and subordination. This implies that certain social groups hold more power and control over others, leading to a hierarchical structure.
• Williams explains social stratification as the ranking of individuals on a scale of superiority, inferiority, and equality, according to a commonly accepted basis of evaluation. This means that people are assessed and placed in different social positions based on certain criteria, such as wealth, education, or occupation.
• Raymond W. Murray describes social stratification as the horizontal division of society into "higher" and "lower" social units. This emphasizes the existence of different layers within society, each with its own level of power and influence.
• Melvin M. Tumin states that social stratification refers to the arrangement of a social group or society into a hierarchy of positions that are unequal in terms of power, property, social evaluation, and psychological satisfaction. This definition highlights the various dimensions of inequality that exist within a stratified society.

Origin of Stratification

There are various perspectives on the origins of social stratification:

• Davis argues that social stratification arises due to the functional necessity of the social system, meaning that it exists to fulfill specific roles and responsibilities within society.
• Professor Sorokin suggests that social stratification is primarily a result of inherited differences in environmental conditions, such as access to resources or geographic location.
• Karl Marx believes that social factors, such as class and power dynamics, contribute to the development of distinct social strata and thus social stratification.
• Gumplowicz and other scholars assert that social stratification originates from the conquest of one group by another, leading to a hierarchy based on power and control.
• Spengler posits that social stratification is based on scarcity, which occurs when society differentiates itself in terms of functions and powers, resulting in unequal access to resources.
• Racial differences, combined with other forms of dissimilarity, can also contribute to the formation of social stratification.

Types of Social Stratification

1. Caste System: The caste system is a hereditary social stratification where a person's rank and accompanying rights and obligations are determined by their birth into a particular group. Examples of castes include the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudra Caste. This type of stratification is predominantly found in countries like India.
2. Class System: The class system is the dominant form of stratification in modern societies, where a person's position depends on their achievements, abilities, and the effective use of their inherited characteristics and wealth. The class system is based on factors such as education, occupation, and income, leading to divisions like upper, middle, and lower classes.
3. Estate System: The estate system was prevalent in medieval Europe, emphasizing both birth and wealth. Each estate had a specific status, and individuals within that estate had certain rights and responsibilities. This system is characterized by the division of society into three main categories - the nobility, the clergy, and the commoners.
4. Slavery: Slavery is another form of social stratification based on economic factors. In this system, slaves were owned by their masters and subjected to their control. The master's power over the slave was unlimited, and the slave was considered as property rather than a person.

Characteristics of Social Stratification

• Universality: Social stratification is a universal phenomenon found in every society, regardless of its size or geographical location. It is present in all permanently organized groups, as stated by Sorokin.
• Social Nature: Although biological qualities such as age, sex, intelligence, and strength may contribute to one's status, social factors like education, property, power, experience, character, and personality play a more significant role in determining social stratification. Thus, stratification is primarily social rather than biological in nature.
• Historical Presence: Social stratification has existed since ancient times, with divisions between the rich and poor, powerful and humble found in many early civilizations. This indicates that stratification is not a recent development but a deeply rooted aspect of human societies.
• Diverse Forms: The forms of stratification vary across societies, with class, caste, and estate being the most common forms. Each society has its unique stratification system, such as the caste system in India, the division of freemen and slaves in ancient Greece, and the patricians and plebeians in ancient Rome.
• Consequential Impact: Social stratification has significant consequences on individuals' life chances and lifestyles. Life chances refer to the opportunities and resources available to individuals, such as health, education, and access to justice. These chances vary across different social strata, affecting the overall quality of life. Lifestyle, on the other hand, denotes the distinctive way of life associated with a particular social status, encompassing aspects like housing, clothing, and recreational activities. In this sense, lifestyle may be seen as a sub-culture where different strata have unique characteristics within a shared overall culture.

Conclusion

Social stratification is a multifaceted and deeply rooted aspect of human societies. It involves the hierarchical organization of individuals and groups based on factors such as wealth, power, and status. Although various forms of stratification exist, they all share common characteristics, such as universality, social nature, historical presence, diverse forms, and consequential impact on life chances and lifestyles. Understanding the complexities and origins of social stratification is crucial for comprehending the broader picture of social hierarchies and their implications for individuals and communities.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of Social Stratification

What is the main difference between caste and class systems in social stratification?

The caste system is a hereditary social stratification where a person's rank and accompanying rights and obligations are determined by their birth into a particular group, while the class system is based on a person's achievements, abilities, and the effective use of their inherited characteristics and wealth. The caste system is predominantly found in countries like India, while the class system is more common in modern societies.

How do historical and societal factors contribute to the development of social stratification?

Historical and societal factors, such as the advent of agriculture and animal husbandry, led to more advanced production technologies, the generation of economic surpluses, and the accumulation of wealth. This, in turn, resulted in population expansion, complex social structures, and the division of labor, ultimately leading to the emergence of social stratification as an institution that fulfilled functional necessities during this period.

What are the three primary organizing principles underlying social stratification?

The three primary organizing principles underlying social stratification are status, wealth, and power. These principles play a crucial role in shaping the dynamics of social stratification, as they contribute to the categorization and ranking of groups within societies.

Can social stratification be completely eliminated from society?

Social stratification is a universal phenomenon found in every society, and it has historically been a deeply rooted aspect of human societies. While it may be challenging to completely eliminate social stratification, efforts can be made to reduce inequalities and promote social mobility, allowing individuals to move between different social strata based on their achievements and abilities.

How does social stratification impact an individual's life chances and lifestyle?

Social stratification affects individuals' life chances, which refer to the opportunities and resources available to them, such as health, education, and access to justice. Life chances vary across different social strata, affecting the overall quality of life. Lifestyle, on the other hand, denotes the distinctive way of life associated with a particular social status, encompassing aspects like housing, clothing, and recreational activities. Different strata may have unique characteristics within a shared overall culture, reflecting their position in the social hierarchy.