TN History Textbook: The Vedic Culture | Old & New NCERTs for IAS Preparation (Must Read) - UPSC PDF Download

 Page 1


27
The cities of the Harappan Culture had declined by 1500 B.C.
Consequently, their economic and administrative system had slowly
declined. Around this period, the speakers of Indo-Aryan language,
Sanskrit, entered the north-west India from the Indo-Iranian region.
Initially they would have come in small numbers through the passes
in the northwestern mountains. Their initial settlements were in the
valleys of the north-west and the plains of the Punjab. Later, they
moved into Indo-Gangetic plains. As they were mainly a cattle-
keeping people, they were mainly in search of pastures. By 6
th
century B.C., they occupied the whole of North India, which was
referred to as Aryavarta. This period between 1500 B.C and 600
B.C may be divided into the Early Vedic Period or Rig Vedic Period
(1500 B.C -1000 B.C) and the Later Vedic Period (1000B.C -
600 B.C).
Original Home of the Aryans
The original home of the Aryans is a debatable question and
there are several views.  Different scholars have identified different
LESSON 3
THE VEDIC CULTURE
Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
1. The original home of the Aryans.
2. The Vedic Literature and their importance.
3. The Rig Vedic Age and its culture.
4. The Later Vedic Age and its culture.
Page 2


27
The cities of the Harappan Culture had declined by 1500 B.C.
Consequently, their economic and administrative system had slowly
declined. Around this period, the speakers of Indo-Aryan language,
Sanskrit, entered the north-west India from the Indo-Iranian region.
Initially they would have come in small numbers through the passes
in the northwestern mountains. Their initial settlements were in the
valleys of the north-west and the plains of the Punjab. Later, they
moved into Indo-Gangetic plains. As they were mainly a cattle-
keeping people, they were mainly in search of pastures. By 6
th
century B.C., they occupied the whole of North India, which was
referred to as Aryavarta. This period between 1500 B.C and 600
B.C may be divided into the Early Vedic Period or Rig Vedic Period
(1500 B.C -1000 B.C) and the Later Vedic Period (1000B.C -
600 B.C).
Original Home of the Aryans
The original home of the Aryans is a debatable question and
there are several views.  Different scholars have identified different
LESSON 3
THE VEDIC CULTURE
Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
1. The original home of the Aryans.
2. The Vedic Literature and their importance.
3. The Rig Vedic Age and its culture.
4. The Later Vedic Age and its culture.
29 28
of seven rivers. This includes the five rivers of Punjab, namely
Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej along with the Indus and
Saraswathi. The political, social and cultural life of the Rig Vedic
people can be traced from the hymns of the Rig Veda.
Political Organization
The basic unit of political organization was kula or family.
Several families joined together on the basis of their kinship to form
a village or grama. The leader of grama was known as gramani. A
group of villages constituted a larger unit called visu. It was headed
by vishayapati. The highest political unit was called jana or tribe.
There were several tribal kingdoms during the Rig Vedic period
such as Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus and Purus. The head of the
kingdom was called as rajan or king. The Rig Vedic polity was
normally monarchical and the succession was hereditary. The king
was assisted by purohita or priest and senani or commander of
the army in his administration. There were two popular bodies called
the Sabha and Samiti. The former seems to have been a council of
elders and the latter, a general assembly of the entire people.
Social Life
The Rig V edic society was patriarchal. The basic unit of society
was family or graham. The head of the family was known as
grahapathi. Monogamy was generally practiced while polygamy
was prevalent among the royal and noble families. The wife took
care of the household and participated in all the major ceremonies.
Women were given equal opportunities as men for their spiritual
and intellectual development. There were women poets like Apala,
Viswavara, Ghosa and Lopamudra during the Rig Vedic period.
Women could even attend the popular assemblies. There was no
child marriage and the practice of sati was absent.
regions as the original home of the Aryans. They include the Arctic
region, Germany, Central Asia and southern Russia. Bala
Gangadhara Tilak argues that the Aryans came from the Arctic region
on astronomical calculations. However, the theory of southern Russia
appears to be more probable and widely accepted by historians.
From there, the Aryans moved to different parts of Asia and Europe.
They entered India in about 1500 B.C. and came to be known as
Indo-Aryans. They spoke the Indo-Aryan language, Sanskrit.
Vedic Literature
The word ‘Veda’ is derived from the root ‘vid’, which means
to know. In other words, the term ‘Veda’ signifies ‘superior
knowledge’. The Vedic literature consists of the four Vedas – Rig,
Yajur, Sama and Atharva. The Rig V eda is the earliest of the four
Vedas and it consists of 1028 hymns. The hymns were sung in praise
of various gods. The Yajur Veda consists of various details of rules
to be observed at the time of sacrifice. The Sama Veda is set to
tune for the purpose of chanting during sacrifice. It is called the
book of chants and the origins of Indian music are traced in it. The
Atharva Veda contains details of rituals.
Besides the Vedas, there are other sacred works like the
Brahmanas, the Upanishads, the Aranyakas and the epics Ramayana
and Mahabharata. The Brahmanas are the treatises relating to prayer
and sacrificial ceremony. The Upanishads are philosophical texts
dealing with topic like the soul, the absolute, the origin of the world
and the mysteries of nature. The Aranyakas are called forest books
and they deal with mysticism, rites, rituals and sacrifices. The author
of Ramayana was Valmiki and that of Mahabharata was Vedavyas.
Rig Vedic Age or Early Vedic Period (1500 - 1000 B.C.)
During the Rig V edic period, the Aryans were mostly confined
to the Indus region. The Rig Veda refers to Saptasindhu or the land
Page 3


27
The cities of the Harappan Culture had declined by 1500 B.C.
Consequently, their economic and administrative system had slowly
declined. Around this period, the speakers of Indo-Aryan language,
Sanskrit, entered the north-west India from the Indo-Iranian region.
Initially they would have come in small numbers through the passes
in the northwestern mountains. Their initial settlements were in the
valleys of the north-west and the plains of the Punjab. Later, they
moved into Indo-Gangetic plains. As they were mainly a cattle-
keeping people, they were mainly in search of pastures. By 6
th
century B.C., they occupied the whole of North India, which was
referred to as Aryavarta. This period between 1500 B.C and 600
B.C may be divided into the Early Vedic Period or Rig Vedic Period
(1500 B.C -1000 B.C) and the Later Vedic Period (1000B.C -
600 B.C).
Original Home of the Aryans
The original home of the Aryans is a debatable question and
there are several views.  Different scholars have identified different
LESSON 3
THE VEDIC CULTURE
Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
1. The original home of the Aryans.
2. The Vedic Literature and their importance.
3. The Rig Vedic Age and its culture.
4. The Later Vedic Age and its culture.
29 28
of seven rivers. This includes the five rivers of Punjab, namely
Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej along with the Indus and
Saraswathi. The political, social and cultural life of the Rig Vedic
people can be traced from the hymns of the Rig Veda.
Political Organization
The basic unit of political organization was kula or family.
Several families joined together on the basis of their kinship to form
a village or grama. The leader of grama was known as gramani. A
group of villages constituted a larger unit called visu. It was headed
by vishayapati. The highest political unit was called jana or tribe.
There were several tribal kingdoms during the Rig Vedic period
such as Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus and Purus. The head of the
kingdom was called as rajan or king. The Rig Vedic polity was
normally monarchical and the succession was hereditary. The king
was assisted by purohita or priest and senani or commander of
the army in his administration. There were two popular bodies called
the Sabha and Samiti. The former seems to have been a council of
elders and the latter, a general assembly of the entire people.
Social Life
The Rig V edic society was patriarchal. The basic unit of society
was family or graham. The head of the family was known as
grahapathi. Monogamy was generally practiced while polygamy
was prevalent among the royal and noble families. The wife took
care of the household and participated in all the major ceremonies.
Women were given equal opportunities as men for their spiritual
and intellectual development. There were women poets like Apala,
Viswavara, Ghosa and Lopamudra during the Rig Vedic period.
Women could even attend the popular assemblies. There was no
child marriage and the practice of sati was absent.
regions as the original home of the Aryans. They include the Arctic
region, Germany, Central Asia and southern Russia. Bala
Gangadhara Tilak argues that the Aryans came from the Arctic region
on astronomical calculations. However, the theory of southern Russia
appears to be more probable and widely accepted by historians.
From there, the Aryans moved to different parts of Asia and Europe.
They entered India in about 1500 B.C. and came to be known as
Indo-Aryans. They spoke the Indo-Aryan language, Sanskrit.
Vedic Literature
The word ‘Veda’ is derived from the root ‘vid’, which means
to know. In other words, the term ‘Veda’ signifies ‘superior
knowledge’. The Vedic literature consists of the four Vedas – Rig,
Yajur, Sama and Atharva. The Rig V eda is the earliest of the four
Vedas and it consists of 1028 hymns. The hymns were sung in praise
of various gods. The Yajur Veda consists of various details of rules
to be observed at the time of sacrifice. The Sama Veda is set to
tune for the purpose of chanting during sacrifice. It is called the
book of chants and the origins of Indian music are traced in it. The
Atharva Veda contains details of rituals.
Besides the Vedas, there are other sacred works like the
Brahmanas, the Upanishads, the Aranyakas and the epics Ramayana
and Mahabharata. The Brahmanas are the treatises relating to prayer
and sacrificial ceremony. The Upanishads are philosophical texts
dealing with topic like the soul, the absolute, the origin of the world
and the mysteries of nature. The Aranyakas are called forest books
and they deal with mysticism, rites, rituals and sacrifices. The author
of Ramayana was Valmiki and that of Mahabharata was Vedavyas.
Rig Vedic Age or Early Vedic Period (1500 - 1000 B.C.)
During the Rig V edic period, the Aryans were mostly confined
to the Indus region. The Rig Veda refers to Saptasindhu or the land
31 30
and Indra (Thunder).  Indra was the most popular among them during
the early Vedic period. Next in importance to Indra was Agni who
was regarded as an intermediary between the gods and people.
Varuna was supposed to be the upholder of the natural order. There
were also female gods like Aditi and Ushas. There were no temples
and no idol worship during the early Vedic period. Prayers were
offered to the gods in the expectation of rewards. Ghee, milk and
grain were given as offerings.  Elaborate rituals were followed during
the worship.
Later Vedic Period (1000 – 600 B.C.)
The Aryans further moved towards east in the Later Vedic
Period. The Satapatha Brahmana refers to the expansion of Aryans
to the eastern Gangetic plains. Several tribal groups and kingdoms
are mentioned in the later Vedic literature. One important
development during this period is the growth of large kingdoms.
Kuru and Panchala kingdoms flourished in the beginning. Parikshat
and Janamejaya were the famous rulers of Kuru kingdom. Pravahana
Jaivali was a popular king of the Panchalas. He was a patron of
learning. After the fall of Kurus and Panchalas, other kingdoms like
Kosala, Kasi and Videha came into prominence. The famous ruler
of Kasi was Ajatasatru. Janaka was the king of Videha with its
capital at Mithila. His court was adorned by scholar Yajnavalkya.
Magadha, Anga and Vanga seem to be the easternmost tribal
kingdoms. The later Vedic texts also refer to the three divisions of
India – Aryavarta (northern India), Madhyadesa (central India) and
Dakshinapatha (southern India).
Political Organization
Larger kingdoms were formed during the later Vedic period.
Many jana or tribes were amalgamated to form janapadas or
rashtras in the later Vedic period. Hence the royal power had
Both men and women wore upper and lower garments made
of cotton and wool.  A variety of ornaments were used by both men
and women.  Wheat and barley, milk and its products like curd and
ghee, vegetables and fruits were the chief articles of food. The eating
of cow’s meat was prohibited since it was a sacred animal. Chariot
racing, horse racing, dicing, music and dance were the favourite
pastimes. The social divisions were not rigid during the Rig Vedic
period as it was in the later Vedic period.
Economic Condition
The Rig Vedic Aryans were pastoral people and their main
occupation was cattle rearing. Their wealth was estimated in terms
of their cattle. When they permanently settled in North India they
began to practice agriculture. With the knowledge and use of iron
they were able to clean forests and bring more lands under
cultivation. Carpentry was another important profession and the
availability of wood from the forests cleared made the profession
profitable. Carpenters produced chariots and ploughs. Workers in
metal made a variety of articles with copper, bronze and iron.
Spinning was another important occupation and cotton and woolen
fabrics were made. Goldsmiths were active in making ornaments.
The potters made various kinds of vessels for domestic use.
Trade was another important economic activity and rivers
served as important means of transport. Trade was conducted on
barter system. In the later times, gold coins called nishka were used
as media of exchange in large transactions.
Religion
The Rig Vedic Aryans worshiped the natural forces like earth,
fire, wind, rain and thunder. They personified these natural forces
into many gods and worshipped them. The important Rig Vedic
gods were Prithvi (Earth), Agni (Fire), Vayu (Wind), Varuna (Rain)
Page 4


27
The cities of the Harappan Culture had declined by 1500 B.C.
Consequently, their economic and administrative system had slowly
declined. Around this period, the speakers of Indo-Aryan language,
Sanskrit, entered the north-west India from the Indo-Iranian region.
Initially they would have come in small numbers through the passes
in the northwestern mountains. Their initial settlements were in the
valleys of the north-west and the plains of the Punjab. Later, they
moved into Indo-Gangetic plains. As they were mainly a cattle-
keeping people, they were mainly in search of pastures. By 6
th
century B.C., they occupied the whole of North India, which was
referred to as Aryavarta. This period between 1500 B.C and 600
B.C may be divided into the Early Vedic Period or Rig Vedic Period
(1500 B.C -1000 B.C) and the Later Vedic Period (1000B.C -
600 B.C).
Original Home of the Aryans
The original home of the Aryans is a debatable question and
there are several views.  Different scholars have identified different
LESSON 3
THE VEDIC CULTURE
Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
1. The original home of the Aryans.
2. The Vedic Literature and their importance.
3. The Rig Vedic Age and its culture.
4. The Later Vedic Age and its culture.
29 28
of seven rivers. This includes the five rivers of Punjab, namely
Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej along with the Indus and
Saraswathi. The political, social and cultural life of the Rig Vedic
people can be traced from the hymns of the Rig Veda.
Political Organization
The basic unit of political organization was kula or family.
Several families joined together on the basis of their kinship to form
a village or grama. The leader of grama was known as gramani. A
group of villages constituted a larger unit called visu. It was headed
by vishayapati. The highest political unit was called jana or tribe.
There were several tribal kingdoms during the Rig Vedic period
such as Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus and Purus. The head of the
kingdom was called as rajan or king. The Rig Vedic polity was
normally monarchical and the succession was hereditary. The king
was assisted by purohita or priest and senani or commander of
the army in his administration. There were two popular bodies called
the Sabha and Samiti. The former seems to have been a council of
elders and the latter, a general assembly of the entire people.
Social Life
The Rig V edic society was patriarchal. The basic unit of society
was family or graham. The head of the family was known as
grahapathi. Monogamy was generally practiced while polygamy
was prevalent among the royal and noble families. The wife took
care of the household and participated in all the major ceremonies.
Women were given equal opportunities as men for their spiritual
and intellectual development. There were women poets like Apala,
Viswavara, Ghosa and Lopamudra during the Rig Vedic period.
Women could even attend the popular assemblies. There was no
child marriage and the practice of sati was absent.
regions as the original home of the Aryans. They include the Arctic
region, Germany, Central Asia and southern Russia. Bala
Gangadhara Tilak argues that the Aryans came from the Arctic region
on astronomical calculations. However, the theory of southern Russia
appears to be more probable and widely accepted by historians.
From there, the Aryans moved to different parts of Asia and Europe.
They entered India in about 1500 B.C. and came to be known as
Indo-Aryans. They spoke the Indo-Aryan language, Sanskrit.
Vedic Literature
The word ‘Veda’ is derived from the root ‘vid’, which means
to know. In other words, the term ‘Veda’ signifies ‘superior
knowledge’. The Vedic literature consists of the four Vedas – Rig,
Yajur, Sama and Atharva. The Rig V eda is the earliest of the four
Vedas and it consists of 1028 hymns. The hymns were sung in praise
of various gods. The Yajur Veda consists of various details of rules
to be observed at the time of sacrifice. The Sama Veda is set to
tune for the purpose of chanting during sacrifice. It is called the
book of chants and the origins of Indian music are traced in it. The
Atharva Veda contains details of rituals.
Besides the Vedas, there are other sacred works like the
Brahmanas, the Upanishads, the Aranyakas and the epics Ramayana
and Mahabharata. The Brahmanas are the treatises relating to prayer
and sacrificial ceremony. The Upanishads are philosophical texts
dealing with topic like the soul, the absolute, the origin of the world
and the mysteries of nature. The Aranyakas are called forest books
and they deal with mysticism, rites, rituals and sacrifices. The author
of Ramayana was Valmiki and that of Mahabharata was Vedavyas.
Rig Vedic Age or Early Vedic Period (1500 - 1000 B.C.)
During the Rig V edic period, the Aryans were mostly confined
to the Indus region. The Rig Veda refers to Saptasindhu or the land
31 30
and Indra (Thunder).  Indra was the most popular among them during
the early Vedic period. Next in importance to Indra was Agni who
was regarded as an intermediary between the gods and people.
Varuna was supposed to be the upholder of the natural order. There
were also female gods like Aditi and Ushas. There were no temples
and no idol worship during the early Vedic period. Prayers were
offered to the gods in the expectation of rewards. Ghee, milk and
grain were given as offerings.  Elaborate rituals were followed during
the worship.
Later Vedic Period (1000 – 600 B.C.)
The Aryans further moved towards east in the Later Vedic
Period. The Satapatha Brahmana refers to the expansion of Aryans
to the eastern Gangetic plains. Several tribal groups and kingdoms
are mentioned in the later Vedic literature. One important
development during this period is the growth of large kingdoms.
Kuru and Panchala kingdoms flourished in the beginning. Parikshat
and Janamejaya were the famous rulers of Kuru kingdom. Pravahana
Jaivali was a popular king of the Panchalas. He was a patron of
learning. After the fall of Kurus and Panchalas, other kingdoms like
Kosala, Kasi and Videha came into prominence. The famous ruler
of Kasi was Ajatasatru. Janaka was the king of Videha with its
capital at Mithila. His court was adorned by scholar Yajnavalkya.
Magadha, Anga and Vanga seem to be the easternmost tribal
kingdoms. The later Vedic texts also refer to the three divisions of
India – Aryavarta (northern India), Madhyadesa (central India) and
Dakshinapatha (southern India).
Political Organization
Larger kingdoms were formed during the later Vedic period.
Many jana or tribes were amalgamated to form janapadas or
rashtras in the later Vedic period. Hence the royal power had
Both men and women wore upper and lower garments made
of cotton and wool.  A variety of ornaments were used by both men
and women.  Wheat and barley, milk and its products like curd and
ghee, vegetables and fruits were the chief articles of food. The eating
of cow’s meat was prohibited since it was a sacred animal. Chariot
racing, horse racing, dicing, music and dance were the favourite
pastimes. The social divisions were not rigid during the Rig Vedic
period as it was in the later Vedic period.
Economic Condition
The Rig Vedic Aryans were pastoral people and their main
occupation was cattle rearing. Their wealth was estimated in terms
of their cattle. When they permanently settled in North India they
began to practice agriculture. With the knowledge and use of iron
they were able to clean forests and bring more lands under
cultivation. Carpentry was another important profession and the
availability of wood from the forests cleared made the profession
profitable. Carpenters produced chariots and ploughs. Workers in
metal made a variety of articles with copper, bronze and iron.
Spinning was another important occupation and cotton and woolen
fabrics were made. Goldsmiths were active in making ornaments.
The potters made various kinds of vessels for domestic use.
Trade was another important economic activity and rivers
served as important means of transport. Trade was conducted on
barter system. In the later times, gold coins called nishka were used
as media of exchange in large transactions.
Religion
The Rig Vedic Aryans worshiped the natural forces like earth,
fire, wind, rain and thunder. They personified these natural forces
into many gods and worshipped them. The important Rig Vedic
gods were Prithvi (Earth), Agni (Fire), Vayu (Wind), Varuna (Rain)
33 32
the Later Vedic period. The two higher classes - Brahmana, and
Kshatriya enjoyed privileges that were denied to the Vaisya and
Sudra. A Brahmin occupied a higher position than a Kshatriya but
sometimes Kshatriyas claimed a higher status over the Brahmins.
Many sub-castes on the basis of their occupation appeared in this
period.
In the family, the power of the father increased during the
Later Vedic period. There was no improvement in the status of
women. They were still considered inferior and subordinate to men.
Women also lost their political rights of attending assemblies. Child
marriages had become common. According the Aitreya Brahmana
a daughter has been described as a source of misery. However, the
women in the royal household enjoyed certain privileges.
Religion
Gods of the Early Vedic period like Indra and Agni lost their
importance.  Prajapathi (the creator), Vishnu (the protector) and
Rudra (the destroyer) became prominent during the Later Vedic
period. Sacrifices were still important and the rituals connected with
them became more elaborate. The importance of prayers declined
and that of sacrifices increased. Priesthood became a profession
and a hereditary one. The formulae for sacrifices were invented and
elaborated by the priestly class. Therefore, towards the end of this
period there was a strong reaction against priestly domination and
against sacrifices and rituals. The rise of Buddhism and Jainism was
the direct result of these elaborate sacrifices. Also, the authors of
the Upanishads, which is the essence of Hindu philosophy, turned
away from the useless rituals and insisted on true knowledge (jnana)
for peace and salvation.
increased along with the increase in the size of kingdom. The king
performed various rituals and sacrifices to strengthen his position.
They include Rajasuya (consecration ceremony), Asvamedha
(horse sacrifice) and Vajpeya (chariot race). The kings also assumed
titles like Rajavisvajanan, Ahilabhuvanapathi, (lord of all earth),
Ekrat and Samrat (sole ruler).
In the later Vedic period, a large number of new officials were
involved in the administration in addition to the existing purohita,
senani and gramani. They include the treasury officer, tax collector
and royal messenger. At the lower levels, the administration was
carried on by the village assemblies.  The importance of the Samiti
and the Sabha had diminished during the later V edic period.
Economic Condition
Iron was used extensively in this period and this enabled the
people to clear forests and to bring more land under cultivation.
Agriculture became the chief occupation. Improved types of
implements were used for cultivation. Besides barley, rice and wheat
were grown. Knowledge of manure was another improvement.
Industrial activity became more varied and there was greater
specialization. Metal work, leather work, carpentry and pottery
made great progress. In addition to internal trade, foreign trade
became extensive. The Later Vedic people were familiar with the
sea and they traded with countries like Babylon. A class of hereditary
merchants (vaniya) came into existence. Vaisyas also carried on
trade and commerce. They organized themselves into guilds known
as ganas. Besides nishka of the Rig Vedic period, gold and silver
coins like satamana and krishnala were used as media of exchange.
Social Life
The four divisions of society (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas
and Sudras) or the Varna system was thoroughly established during
Page 5


27
The cities of the Harappan Culture had declined by 1500 B.C.
Consequently, their economic and administrative system had slowly
declined. Around this period, the speakers of Indo-Aryan language,
Sanskrit, entered the north-west India from the Indo-Iranian region.
Initially they would have come in small numbers through the passes
in the northwestern mountains. Their initial settlements were in the
valleys of the north-west and the plains of the Punjab. Later, they
moved into Indo-Gangetic plains. As they were mainly a cattle-
keeping people, they were mainly in search of pastures. By 6
th
century B.C., they occupied the whole of North India, which was
referred to as Aryavarta. This period between 1500 B.C and 600
B.C may be divided into the Early Vedic Period or Rig Vedic Period
(1500 B.C -1000 B.C) and the Later Vedic Period (1000B.C -
600 B.C).
Original Home of the Aryans
The original home of the Aryans is a debatable question and
there are several views.  Different scholars have identified different
LESSON 3
THE VEDIC CULTURE
Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
1. The original home of the Aryans.
2. The Vedic Literature and their importance.
3. The Rig Vedic Age and its culture.
4. The Later Vedic Age and its culture.
29 28
of seven rivers. This includes the five rivers of Punjab, namely
Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej along with the Indus and
Saraswathi. The political, social and cultural life of the Rig Vedic
people can be traced from the hymns of the Rig Veda.
Political Organization
The basic unit of political organization was kula or family.
Several families joined together on the basis of their kinship to form
a village or grama. The leader of grama was known as gramani. A
group of villages constituted a larger unit called visu. It was headed
by vishayapati. The highest political unit was called jana or tribe.
There were several tribal kingdoms during the Rig Vedic period
such as Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus and Purus. The head of the
kingdom was called as rajan or king. The Rig Vedic polity was
normally monarchical and the succession was hereditary. The king
was assisted by purohita or priest and senani or commander of
the army in his administration. There were two popular bodies called
the Sabha and Samiti. The former seems to have been a council of
elders and the latter, a general assembly of the entire people.
Social Life
The Rig V edic society was patriarchal. The basic unit of society
was family or graham. The head of the family was known as
grahapathi. Monogamy was generally practiced while polygamy
was prevalent among the royal and noble families. The wife took
care of the household and participated in all the major ceremonies.
Women were given equal opportunities as men for their spiritual
and intellectual development. There were women poets like Apala,
Viswavara, Ghosa and Lopamudra during the Rig Vedic period.
Women could even attend the popular assemblies. There was no
child marriage and the practice of sati was absent.
regions as the original home of the Aryans. They include the Arctic
region, Germany, Central Asia and southern Russia. Bala
Gangadhara Tilak argues that the Aryans came from the Arctic region
on astronomical calculations. However, the theory of southern Russia
appears to be more probable and widely accepted by historians.
From there, the Aryans moved to different parts of Asia and Europe.
They entered India in about 1500 B.C. and came to be known as
Indo-Aryans. They spoke the Indo-Aryan language, Sanskrit.
Vedic Literature
The word ‘Veda’ is derived from the root ‘vid’, which means
to know. In other words, the term ‘Veda’ signifies ‘superior
knowledge’. The Vedic literature consists of the four Vedas – Rig,
Yajur, Sama and Atharva. The Rig V eda is the earliest of the four
Vedas and it consists of 1028 hymns. The hymns were sung in praise
of various gods. The Yajur Veda consists of various details of rules
to be observed at the time of sacrifice. The Sama Veda is set to
tune for the purpose of chanting during sacrifice. It is called the
book of chants and the origins of Indian music are traced in it. The
Atharva Veda contains details of rituals.
Besides the Vedas, there are other sacred works like the
Brahmanas, the Upanishads, the Aranyakas and the epics Ramayana
and Mahabharata. The Brahmanas are the treatises relating to prayer
and sacrificial ceremony. The Upanishads are philosophical texts
dealing with topic like the soul, the absolute, the origin of the world
and the mysteries of nature. The Aranyakas are called forest books
and they deal with mysticism, rites, rituals and sacrifices. The author
of Ramayana was Valmiki and that of Mahabharata was Vedavyas.
Rig Vedic Age or Early Vedic Period (1500 - 1000 B.C.)
During the Rig V edic period, the Aryans were mostly confined
to the Indus region. The Rig Veda refers to Saptasindhu or the land
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and Indra (Thunder).  Indra was the most popular among them during
the early Vedic period. Next in importance to Indra was Agni who
was regarded as an intermediary between the gods and people.
Varuna was supposed to be the upholder of the natural order. There
were also female gods like Aditi and Ushas. There were no temples
and no idol worship during the early Vedic period. Prayers were
offered to the gods in the expectation of rewards. Ghee, milk and
grain were given as offerings.  Elaborate rituals were followed during
the worship.
Later Vedic Period (1000 – 600 B.C.)
The Aryans further moved towards east in the Later Vedic
Period. The Satapatha Brahmana refers to the expansion of Aryans
to the eastern Gangetic plains. Several tribal groups and kingdoms
are mentioned in the later Vedic literature. One important
development during this period is the growth of large kingdoms.
Kuru and Panchala kingdoms flourished in the beginning. Parikshat
and Janamejaya were the famous rulers of Kuru kingdom. Pravahana
Jaivali was a popular king of the Panchalas. He was a patron of
learning. After the fall of Kurus and Panchalas, other kingdoms like
Kosala, Kasi and Videha came into prominence. The famous ruler
of Kasi was Ajatasatru. Janaka was the king of Videha with its
capital at Mithila. His court was adorned by scholar Yajnavalkya.
Magadha, Anga and Vanga seem to be the easternmost tribal
kingdoms. The later Vedic texts also refer to the three divisions of
India – Aryavarta (northern India), Madhyadesa (central India) and
Dakshinapatha (southern India).
Political Organization
Larger kingdoms were formed during the later Vedic period.
Many jana or tribes were amalgamated to form janapadas or
rashtras in the later Vedic period. Hence the royal power had
Both men and women wore upper and lower garments made
of cotton and wool.  A variety of ornaments were used by both men
and women.  Wheat and barley, milk and its products like curd and
ghee, vegetables and fruits were the chief articles of food. The eating
of cow’s meat was prohibited since it was a sacred animal. Chariot
racing, horse racing, dicing, music and dance were the favourite
pastimes. The social divisions were not rigid during the Rig Vedic
period as it was in the later Vedic period.
Economic Condition
The Rig Vedic Aryans were pastoral people and their main
occupation was cattle rearing. Their wealth was estimated in terms
of their cattle. When they permanently settled in North India they
began to practice agriculture. With the knowledge and use of iron
they were able to clean forests and bring more lands under
cultivation. Carpentry was another important profession and the
availability of wood from the forests cleared made the profession
profitable. Carpenters produced chariots and ploughs. Workers in
metal made a variety of articles with copper, bronze and iron.
Spinning was another important occupation and cotton and woolen
fabrics were made. Goldsmiths were active in making ornaments.
The potters made various kinds of vessels for domestic use.
Trade was another important economic activity and rivers
served as important means of transport. Trade was conducted on
barter system. In the later times, gold coins called nishka were used
as media of exchange in large transactions.
Religion
The Rig Vedic Aryans worshiped the natural forces like earth,
fire, wind, rain and thunder. They personified these natural forces
into many gods and worshipped them. The important Rig Vedic
gods were Prithvi (Earth), Agni (Fire), Vayu (Wind), Varuna (Rain)
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the Later Vedic period. The two higher classes - Brahmana, and
Kshatriya enjoyed privileges that were denied to the Vaisya and
Sudra. A Brahmin occupied a higher position than a Kshatriya but
sometimes Kshatriyas claimed a higher status over the Brahmins.
Many sub-castes on the basis of their occupation appeared in this
period.
In the family, the power of the father increased during the
Later Vedic period. There was no improvement in the status of
women. They were still considered inferior and subordinate to men.
Women also lost their political rights of attending assemblies. Child
marriages had become common. According the Aitreya Brahmana
a daughter has been described as a source of misery. However, the
women in the royal household enjoyed certain privileges.
Religion
Gods of the Early Vedic period like Indra and Agni lost their
importance.  Prajapathi (the creator), Vishnu (the protector) and
Rudra (the destroyer) became prominent during the Later Vedic
period. Sacrifices were still important and the rituals connected with
them became more elaborate. The importance of prayers declined
and that of sacrifices increased. Priesthood became a profession
and a hereditary one. The formulae for sacrifices were invented and
elaborated by the priestly class. Therefore, towards the end of this
period there was a strong reaction against priestly domination and
against sacrifices and rituals. The rise of Buddhism and Jainism was
the direct result of these elaborate sacrifices. Also, the authors of
the Upanishads, which is the essence of Hindu philosophy, turned
away from the useless rituals and insisted on true knowledge (jnana)
for peace and salvation.
increased along with the increase in the size of kingdom. The king
performed various rituals and sacrifices to strengthen his position.
They include Rajasuya (consecration ceremony), Asvamedha
(horse sacrifice) and Vajpeya (chariot race). The kings also assumed
titles like Rajavisvajanan, Ahilabhuvanapathi, (lord of all earth),
Ekrat and Samrat (sole ruler).
In the later Vedic period, a large number of new officials were
involved in the administration in addition to the existing purohita,
senani and gramani. They include the treasury officer, tax collector
and royal messenger. At the lower levels, the administration was
carried on by the village assemblies.  The importance of the Samiti
and the Sabha had diminished during the later V edic period.
Economic Condition
Iron was used extensively in this period and this enabled the
people to clear forests and to bring more land under cultivation.
Agriculture became the chief occupation. Improved types of
implements were used for cultivation. Besides barley, rice and wheat
were grown. Knowledge of manure was another improvement.
Industrial activity became more varied and there was greater
specialization. Metal work, leather work, carpentry and pottery
made great progress. In addition to internal trade, foreign trade
became extensive. The Later Vedic people were familiar with the
sea and they traded with countries like Babylon. A class of hereditary
merchants (vaniya) came into existence. Vaisyas also carried on
trade and commerce. They organized themselves into guilds known
as ganas. Besides nishka of the Rig Vedic period, gold and silver
coins like satamana and krishnala were used as media of exchange.
Social Life
The four divisions of society (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas
and Sudras) or the Varna system was thoroughly established during
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MODEL QUESTIONS
I. Choose the correct answer.
1. The earliest of the Vedas
(a) Rig (b) Yajur
(c) Sama (d) Atharva
2. Pravahana Jaivali was a popular king of
(a) Videha (b) Kasi
(c) Kurus (d) Panchalas
II. Fill in the blanks.
1. The author of Ramayana was ……
2. The Arctic home for the Aryans was suggested by
III. Match the following.
1. Nishka a) Later Vedic coin
2. Ushas b) Rig Vedic coin
3. Apala c) Goddess
4. Krishnala d) Woman poet
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
right.
a) Indra and Varuna were the important gods during the Later
Vedic period.
b) The position of women improved during the Later Vedic
period.
c) The caste system was not rigid during the Later Vedic period.
d) The importance of Samiti and Sabha declined during the Later
Vedic period.
Learning Outcome
After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain
1. The Vedic Literature such as the four Vedas and the
Brahmanas and other later Vedic literature.
2. The Rig Vedic polity, society and economy.
3. Religious life of the Rig Vedic people.
4. The changes during the Later Vedic period in the sphere
of polity and society.
5. The increasing rites and rituals in the religious life of
the Later Vedic people.