TN History Textbook: Vijaynagar and Bahmani Kingdoms | Old & New NCERTs for IAS Preparation (Must Read) - UPSC PDF Download

 Page 1


209
VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE
Sources
The history of Vijayanagar Empire constitutes an important
chapter in the history of India. Four dynasties – Sangama, Saluva,
Tuluva and Aravidu – ruled Vijayanagar from A.D. 1336 to 1672.
The sources for the study of Vijayanagar are varied such as literary,
archaeological and numismatics. Krishnadevaraya’s
Amukthamalyada, Gangadevi’s Maduravijayam and Allasani
Peddanna’s Manucharitam are some of the indigenous literature of
this period.
Many foreign travelers visited the Vijayanagar Empire and
their accounts are also valuable. The Moroccan traveler, Ibn Battuta,
Venetian traveler Nicolo de Conti, Persian traveler Abdur Razzak
and the Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes were among them who
left valuable accounts on the socio-economic conditions of the
Vijayanagar Empire.
LESSON 19
VIJAYANAGAR AND BAHMANI KINGDOMS
Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
1. Sources for the study of Vijayanagar Empire.
2. Political History of the Vijayanagar Empire.
3. Administration and Social life.
4. Economic Condition and Cultural contributions.
5. A brief history of the Bahmani kingdom.
 
Page 2


209
VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE
Sources
The history of Vijayanagar Empire constitutes an important
chapter in the history of India. Four dynasties – Sangama, Saluva,
Tuluva and Aravidu – ruled Vijayanagar from A.D. 1336 to 1672.
The sources for the study of Vijayanagar are varied such as literary,
archaeological and numismatics. Krishnadevaraya’s
Amukthamalyada, Gangadevi’s Maduravijayam and Allasani
Peddanna’s Manucharitam are some of the indigenous literature of
this period.
Many foreign travelers visited the Vijayanagar Empire and
their accounts are also valuable. The Moroccan traveler, Ibn Battuta,
Venetian traveler Nicolo de Conti, Persian traveler Abdur Razzak
and the Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes were among them who
left valuable accounts on the socio-economic conditions of the
Vijayanagar Empire.
LESSON 19
VIJAYANAGAR AND BAHMANI KINGDOMS
Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
1. Sources for the study of Vijayanagar Empire.
2. Political History of the Vijayanagar Empire.
3. Administration and Social life.
4. Economic Condition and Cultural contributions.
5. A brief history of the Bahmani kingdom.
 
211 210
drawn conflict. The greatest ruler of the Sangama dynasty was Deva
Raya II. But he could not win any clear victory over the Bahmani
Sultans. After his death, Sangama dynasty became weak. The next
dynasty, Saluva dynasty founded by Saluva Narasimha reigned only
for a brief period (1486-1509).
Krishna Deva Raya (1509 – 1530)
The Tuluva dynasty was founded by Vira Narasimha. The
greatest of the Vijayanagar rulers, Krishna Deva Raya belonged to
the Tuluva dynasty. He possessed great military ability. His imposing
personality was accompanied by high intellectual quality. His first
task was to check the invading Bahmani forces.
By that time the Bahmani kingdom was replaced
by Deccan Sultanates. The Muslim armies were
decisively defeated in the battle of Diwani by
Krishna Deva Raya. Then he invaded Raichur
Doab which had resulted in the confrontation with
the Sultan of Bijapur, Ismail Adil Shah. But,
Krishna Deva Raya defeated him and captured
the city of Raichur in 1520. From there he marched
on Bidar and captured it.
Krishna Deva Raya’s Orissa campaign was also successful.
He defeated the Gajapathi ruler Prataparudra and conquered the
whole of Telungana. He maintained friendly relations with the
Portuguese. Albuquerque sent his ambassadors to Krishna Deva
Raya.
Though a Vaishnavaite, he respected all religions. He was a
great patron of literature and art and he was known as Andhra Bhoja.
Eight eminent scholars known as Ashtadiggajas were at his royal
court. Allasani Peddanna was the greatest and he was called
The copper plate inscriptions such as the
Srirangam copper plates of Devaraya II provide
the genealogy and achievements of Vijayanagar
rulers. The Hampi ruins and other monuments of
Vijayanagar provide information on the cultural
contributions of the Vijayanagar rulers. The
numerous coins issued by the Vijayanagar rulers
contain figures and legends explaining their tittles
and achievements.
Political History
Vijayanagar was founded in 1336 by Harihara and Bukka of
the Sangama dynasty. They were originally served under the Kakatiya
rulers of Warangal. Then they went to Kampili where they were
imprisoned and converted to Islam. Later, they returned to the Hindu
fold at the initiative of the saint Vidyaranya. They also proclaimed
their independence and founded a new city on the south bank of the
Tungabhadra river. It was called Vijayanagar meaning city of victory.
The decline of the Hoysala kingdom enabled Harihara and
Bukka to expand their newly founded kingdom. By 1346, they
brought the whole of the Hoysala kingdom under their control. The
struggle between Vijayanagar and Sultanate of Madurai lasted for
about four decades. Kumarakampana’s expedition to Madurai was
described in the Maduravijayam. He destroyed the Madurai Sultans
and as a result, the Vijayanagar Empire comprised the whole of
South India up to Rameswaram.
The conflict between Vijayanagar Empire and the Bahmani
kingdom lasted for many years. The dispute over Raichur Doab,
the region between the rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra and also
over the fertile areas of Krishna-Godavari delta led to this long-
IBN BATTUTA 
KRISHNA
DEV A RA Y A
Page 3


209
VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE
Sources
The history of Vijayanagar Empire constitutes an important
chapter in the history of India. Four dynasties – Sangama, Saluva,
Tuluva and Aravidu – ruled Vijayanagar from A.D. 1336 to 1672.
The sources for the study of Vijayanagar are varied such as literary,
archaeological and numismatics. Krishnadevaraya’s
Amukthamalyada, Gangadevi’s Maduravijayam and Allasani
Peddanna’s Manucharitam are some of the indigenous literature of
this period.
Many foreign travelers visited the Vijayanagar Empire and
their accounts are also valuable. The Moroccan traveler, Ibn Battuta,
Venetian traveler Nicolo de Conti, Persian traveler Abdur Razzak
and the Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes were among them who
left valuable accounts on the socio-economic conditions of the
Vijayanagar Empire.
LESSON 19
VIJAYANAGAR AND BAHMANI KINGDOMS
Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
1. Sources for the study of Vijayanagar Empire.
2. Political History of the Vijayanagar Empire.
3. Administration and Social life.
4. Economic Condition and Cultural contributions.
5. A brief history of the Bahmani kingdom.
 
211 210
drawn conflict. The greatest ruler of the Sangama dynasty was Deva
Raya II. But he could not win any clear victory over the Bahmani
Sultans. After his death, Sangama dynasty became weak. The next
dynasty, Saluva dynasty founded by Saluva Narasimha reigned only
for a brief period (1486-1509).
Krishna Deva Raya (1509 – 1530)
The Tuluva dynasty was founded by Vira Narasimha. The
greatest of the Vijayanagar rulers, Krishna Deva Raya belonged to
the Tuluva dynasty. He possessed great military ability. His imposing
personality was accompanied by high intellectual quality. His first
task was to check the invading Bahmani forces.
By that time the Bahmani kingdom was replaced
by Deccan Sultanates. The Muslim armies were
decisively defeated in the battle of Diwani by
Krishna Deva Raya. Then he invaded Raichur
Doab which had resulted in the confrontation with
the Sultan of Bijapur, Ismail Adil Shah. But,
Krishna Deva Raya defeated him and captured
the city of Raichur in 1520. From there he marched
on Bidar and captured it.
Krishna Deva Raya’s Orissa campaign was also successful.
He defeated the Gajapathi ruler Prataparudra and conquered the
whole of Telungana. He maintained friendly relations with the
Portuguese. Albuquerque sent his ambassadors to Krishna Deva
Raya.
Though a Vaishnavaite, he respected all religions. He was a
great patron of literature and art and he was known as Andhra Bhoja.
Eight eminent scholars known as Ashtadiggajas were at his royal
court. Allasani Peddanna was the greatest and he was called
The copper plate inscriptions such as the
Srirangam copper plates of Devaraya II provide
the genealogy and achievements of Vijayanagar
rulers. The Hampi ruins and other monuments of
Vijayanagar provide information on the cultural
contributions of the Vijayanagar rulers. The
numerous coins issued by the Vijayanagar rulers
contain figures and legends explaining their tittles
and achievements.
Political History
Vijayanagar was founded in 1336 by Harihara and Bukka of
the Sangama dynasty. They were originally served under the Kakatiya
rulers of Warangal. Then they went to Kampili where they were
imprisoned and converted to Islam. Later, they returned to the Hindu
fold at the initiative of the saint Vidyaranya. They also proclaimed
their independence and founded a new city on the south bank of the
Tungabhadra river. It was called Vijayanagar meaning city of victory.
The decline of the Hoysala kingdom enabled Harihara and
Bukka to expand their newly founded kingdom. By 1346, they
brought the whole of the Hoysala kingdom under their control. The
struggle between Vijayanagar and Sultanate of Madurai lasted for
about four decades. Kumarakampana’s expedition to Madurai was
described in the Maduravijayam. He destroyed the Madurai Sultans
and as a result, the Vijayanagar Empire comprised the whole of
South India up to Rameswaram.
The conflict between Vijayanagar Empire and the Bahmani
kingdom lasted for many years. The dispute over Raichur Doab,
the region between the rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra and also
over the fertile areas of Krishna-Godavari delta led to this long-
IBN BATTUTA 
KRISHNA
DEV A RA Y A
213 212
The Empire was divided into different administrative units
called Mandalams, Nadus, sthalas and finally into gramas. The
governor of Mandalam was called Mandaleswara or Nayak.
Vijayanagar rulers gave full powers to the local authorities in the
administration.
Besides land revenue, tributes and gifts from vassals and feudal
chiefs, customs collected at the ports, taxes on various professions
were other sources of income to the government. Land revenue
was fixed generally one sixth of the produce. The expenditure of
the government includes personal expenses of king and the charities
given by him and military expenditure. In the matter of justice, harsh
punishments such as mutilation and throwing to elephants were
followed.
The Vijayanagar army was well-organized and efficient. It
consisted of the cavalry, infantry, artillery and elephants. High-breed
horses were procured from foreign traders. The top-grade officers
of the army were known as Nayaks or Poligars. They were granted
land in lieu of their services. These lands were called amaram.
Soldiers were usually paid in cash.
Social Life
Allasani Peddanna in his Manucharitam refers the existence
of four castes – Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras - in the
Vijayanagar society. Foreign travelers left vivid accounts on the
splendour of buildings and luxurious social life in the city of
Vijayanagar. Silk and cotton clothes were mainly used for dress.
Perfumes, flowers and ornaments were used by the people. Paes
mentions of the beautiful houses of the rich and the large number of
their household servants. Nicolo Conti refers to the prevalence of
slavery. Dancing, music, wrestling, gambling and cock-fighting were
some of the amusements.
Andhrakavita Pitamaga. His important works include
Manucharitam and Harikathasaram. Pingali Suranna and Tenali
Ramakrishna were other important scholars. Krishna Deva Raya
himself authored a Telugu work, Amukthamalyadha and Sanskrit
works, Jambavati Kalyanam and Ushaparinayam.
He repaired most of the temples of south India. He also built
the famous Vittalaswamy and Hazara Ramaswamy temples at
Vijayanagar. He also built a new city called Nagalapuram in memory
of his queen Nagaladevi. Besides, he built a large number of
Rayagopurams.
After his death, Achutadeva and Venkata succeeded the
throne. During the reign of Rama Raya, the combined forces of
Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golkonda and Bidar defeated him at the Battle
of Talaikotta in 1565. This battle is also known as Raksasa
Thangadi. Rama Raya was imprisoned and executed. The city of
Vijayanagar was destroyed. This battle was generally considered
to mark the end of the Vijayanagar Empire. However, the
Vijayanagar kingdom existed under the Aravidu dynasty for about
another century. Thirumala, Sri Ranga and Venkata II were the
important rulers of this dynasty. The last ruler of Vijayanagar kingdom
was Sri Ranga III.
Administration
The administration under the Vijayanagar Empire was well
organized. The king enjoyed absolute authority in executive, judicial
and legislative matters. He was the highest court of appeal. The
succession to the throne was on the principle of hereditary.
Sometimes usurpation to the throne took place as Saluva Narasimha
came to power by ending the Sangama dynasty. The king was
assisted by a council of ministers in his day to day administration.
Page 4


209
VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE
Sources
The history of Vijayanagar Empire constitutes an important
chapter in the history of India. Four dynasties – Sangama, Saluva,
Tuluva and Aravidu – ruled Vijayanagar from A.D. 1336 to 1672.
The sources for the study of Vijayanagar are varied such as literary,
archaeological and numismatics. Krishnadevaraya’s
Amukthamalyada, Gangadevi’s Maduravijayam and Allasani
Peddanna’s Manucharitam are some of the indigenous literature of
this period.
Many foreign travelers visited the Vijayanagar Empire and
their accounts are also valuable. The Moroccan traveler, Ibn Battuta,
Venetian traveler Nicolo de Conti, Persian traveler Abdur Razzak
and the Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes were among them who
left valuable accounts on the socio-economic conditions of the
Vijayanagar Empire.
LESSON 19
VIJAYANAGAR AND BAHMANI KINGDOMS
Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
1. Sources for the study of Vijayanagar Empire.
2. Political History of the Vijayanagar Empire.
3. Administration and Social life.
4. Economic Condition and Cultural contributions.
5. A brief history of the Bahmani kingdom.
 
211 210
drawn conflict. The greatest ruler of the Sangama dynasty was Deva
Raya II. But he could not win any clear victory over the Bahmani
Sultans. After his death, Sangama dynasty became weak. The next
dynasty, Saluva dynasty founded by Saluva Narasimha reigned only
for a brief period (1486-1509).
Krishna Deva Raya (1509 – 1530)
The Tuluva dynasty was founded by Vira Narasimha. The
greatest of the Vijayanagar rulers, Krishna Deva Raya belonged to
the Tuluva dynasty. He possessed great military ability. His imposing
personality was accompanied by high intellectual quality. His first
task was to check the invading Bahmani forces.
By that time the Bahmani kingdom was replaced
by Deccan Sultanates. The Muslim armies were
decisively defeated in the battle of Diwani by
Krishna Deva Raya. Then he invaded Raichur
Doab which had resulted in the confrontation with
the Sultan of Bijapur, Ismail Adil Shah. But,
Krishna Deva Raya defeated him and captured
the city of Raichur in 1520. From there he marched
on Bidar and captured it.
Krishna Deva Raya’s Orissa campaign was also successful.
He defeated the Gajapathi ruler Prataparudra and conquered the
whole of Telungana. He maintained friendly relations with the
Portuguese. Albuquerque sent his ambassadors to Krishna Deva
Raya.
Though a Vaishnavaite, he respected all religions. He was a
great patron of literature and art and he was known as Andhra Bhoja.
Eight eminent scholars known as Ashtadiggajas were at his royal
court. Allasani Peddanna was the greatest and he was called
The copper plate inscriptions such as the
Srirangam copper plates of Devaraya II provide
the genealogy and achievements of Vijayanagar
rulers. The Hampi ruins and other monuments of
Vijayanagar provide information on the cultural
contributions of the Vijayanagar rulers. The
numerous coins issued by the Vijayanagar rulers
contain figures and legends explaining their tittles
and achievements.
Political History
Vijayanagar was founded in 1336 by Harihara and Bukka of
the Sangama dynasty. They were originally served under the Kakatiya
rulers of Warangal. Then they went to Kampili where they were
imprisoned and converted to Islam. Later, they returned to the Hindu
fold at the initiative of the saint Vidyaranya. They also proclaimed
their independence and founded a new city on the south bank of the
Tungabhadra river. It was called Vijayanagar meaning city of victory.
The decline of the Hoysala kingdom enabled Harihara and
Bukka to expand their newly founded kingdom. By 1346, they
brought the whole of the Hoysala kingdom under their control. The
struggle between Vijayanagar and Sultanate of Madurai lasted for
about four decades. Kumarakampana’s expedition to Madurai was
described in the Maduravijayam. He destroyed the Madurai Sultans
and as a result, the Vijayanagar Empire comprised the whole of
South India up to Rameswaram.
The conflict between Vijayanagar Empire and the Bahmani
kingdom lasted for many years. The dispute over Raichur Doab,
the region between the rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra and also
over the fertile areas of Krishna-Godavari delta led to this long-
IBN BATTUTA 
KRISHNA
DEV A RA Y A
213 212
The Empire was divided into different administrative units
called Mandalams, Nadus, sthalas and finally into gramas. The
governor of Mandalam was called Mandaleswara or Nayak.
Vijayanagar rulers gave full powers to the local authorities in the
administration.
Besides land revenue, tributes and gifts from vassals and feudal
chiefs, customs collected at the ports, taxes on various professions
were other sources of income to the government. Land revenue
was fixed generally one sixth of the produce. The expenditure of
the government includes personal expenses of king and the charities
given by him and military expenditure. In the matter of justice, harsh
punishments such as mutilation and throwing to elephants were
followed.
The Vijayanagar army was well-organized and efficient. It
consisted of the cavalry, infantry, artillery and elephants. High-breed
horses were procured from foreign traders. The top-grade officers
of the army were known as Nayaks or Poligars. They were granted
land in lieu of their services. These lands were called amaram.
Soldiers were usually paid in cash.
Social Life
Allasani Peddanna in his Manucharitam refers the existence
of four castes – Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras - in the
Vijayanagar society. Foreign travelers left vivid accounts on the
splendour of buildings and luxurious social life in the city of
Vijayanagar. Silk and cotton clothes were mainly used for dress.
Perfumes, flowers and ornaments were used by the people. Paes
mentions of the beautiful houses of the rich and the large number of
their household servants. Nicolo Conti refers to the prevalence of
slavery. Dancing, music, wrestling, gambling and cock-fighting were
some of the amusements.
Andhrakavita Pitamaga. His important works include
Manucharitam and Harikathasaram. Pingali Suranna and Tenali
Ramakrishna were other important scholars. Krishna Deva Raya
himself authored a Telugu work, Amukthamalyadha and Sanskrit
works, Jambavati Kalyanam and Ushaparinayam.
He repaired most of the temples of south India. He also built
the famous Vittalaswamy and Hazara Ramaswamy temples at
Vijayanagar. He also built a new city called Nagalapuram in memory
of his queen Nagaladevi. Besides, he built a large number of
Rayagopurams.
After his death, Achutadeva and Venkata succeeded the
throne. During the reign of Rama Raya, the combined forces of
Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golkonda and Bidar defeated him at the Battle
of Talaikotta in 1565. This battle is also known as Raksasa
Thangadi. Rama Raya was imprisoned and executed. The city of
Vijayanagar was destroyed. This battle was generally considered
to mark the end of the Vijayanagar Empire. However, the
Vijayanagar kingdom existed under the Aravidu dynasty for about
another century. Thirumala, Sri Ranga and Venkata II were the
important rulers of this dynasty. The last ruler of Vijayanagar kingdom
was Sri Ranga III.
Administration
The administration under the Vijayanagar Empire was well
organized. The king enjoyed absolute authority in executive, judicial
and legislative matters. He was the highest court of appeal. The
succession to the throne was on the principle of hereditary.
Sometimes usurpation to the throne took place as Saluva Narasimha
came to power by ending the Sangama dynasty. The king was
assisted by a council of ministers in his day to day administration.
215 214
coin was the varaha but weights and measures varied from place
to place. Inland, coastal and overseas trade led to the general
prosperity. There were a number of seaports on the Malabar coast,
the chief being Cannanore. Commercial contacts with Arabia, Persia,
South Africa and Portugal on the west and with Burma, Malay
peninsula and China on the east flourished. The chief items of exports
were cotton and silk clothes, spices, rice, iron, saltpeter and sugar.
The imports consisted of horses, pearls, copper, coral, mercury,
China silk and velvet clothes. The art of shipbuilding had developed.
Cultural Contributions
The temple building activity further gained momentum during
the Vijayanagar rule. The chief characteristics of the Vijayanagara
architecture were the construction of tall Raya Gopurams or
gateways and the Kalyanamandapam with carved pillars in the
temple premises. The sculptures on the pillars were carved with
distinctive features. The horse was the most common animal found
in these pillars. Large mandapams contain one hundred pillars as
well as one thousand pillars in some big temples. These mandapams
were used for seating the deity on festival occasions. Also, many
Amman shrines were added to the already existing temples during
this period.
The most important temples of the
Vijayanagar style were found in the Hampi
ruins or the city of Vijayanagar.
Vittalaswamy and Hazara Ramaswamy
temples were the best examples of this style.
The Varadharaja and Ekamparanatha
temples at Kanchipuram stand as examples
for the magnificence of the Vijayanagara
style of temple architecture. The Raya
Gopurams at Thiruvannamalai and
EASTERN GOPURAM OF  
VARADHARAJA PERUMAL TEMPLE 
The Sangama rulers were chiefly Saivaites and Virupaksha
was their family deity. But other dynasties were Vaishnavites.
Srivaishnavism of Ramanuja was very popular. But all kings were
tolerant towards other religions. Borbosa referred to the religious
freedom enjoyed by everyone. Muslims were employed in the
administration and they were freely allowed to build mosques and
worship. A large number of temples were built during this period
and numerous festivals were celebrated. The Epics and the Puranas
were popular among the masses.
The position of women had not improved. However, some of
them were learned. Gangadevi, wife of Kumarakampana authored
the famous work Maduravijayam. Hannamma and Thirumalamma
were famous poets of this period. According to Nuniz, a large number
of women were employed in royal palaces as dancers, domestic
servants and palanquin bearers. The attachment of dancing girls to
temples was in practice. Paes refers to the flourishing devadasi
system. Polygamy was prevalent among the royal families. Sati was
honoured and Nuniz gives a description of it.
Economic Condition
According to the accounts of the foreign travelers, the
Vijayanagar Empire was one of the wealthiest parts of the world at
that time. Agriculture continued to be the chief occupation of the
people. The Vijayanagar rulers provided a stimulus to its further
growth by providing irrigation facilities. New tanks were built and
dams were constructed across the rivers like Tunghabadra. Nuniz
refers to the excavation of canals.
There were numerous industries and they were organized into
guilds. Metal workers and other craftsmen flourished during this
period. Diamond mines were located in Kurnool and Anantapur
district. Vijayanagar was also a great centre of trade. The chief gold
Page 5


209
VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE
Sources
The history of Vijayanagar Empire constitutes an important
chapter in the history of India. Four dynasties – Sangama, Saluva,
Tuluva and Aravidu – ruled Vijayanagar from A.D. 1336 to 1672.
The sources for the study of Vijayanagar are varied such as literary,
archaeological and numismatics. Krishnadevaraya’s
Amukthamalyada, Gangadevi’s Maduravijayam and Allasani
Peddanna’s Manucharitam are some of the indigenous literature of
this period.
Many foreign travelers visited the Vijayanagar Empire and
their accounts are also valuable. The Moroccan traveler, Ibn Battuta,
Venetian traveler Nicolo de Conti, Persian traveler Abdur Razzak
and the Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes were among them who
left valuable accounts on the socio-economic conditions of the
Vijayanagar Empire.
LESSON 19
VIJAYANAGAR AND BAHMANI KINGDOMS
Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
1. Sources for the study of Vijayanagar Empire.
2. Political History of the Vijayanagar Empire.
3. Administration and Social life.
4. Economic Condition and Cultural contributions.
5. A brief history of the Bahmani kingdom.
 
211 210
drawn conflict. The greatest ruler of the Sangama dynasty was Deva
Raya II. But he could not win any clear victory over the Bahmani
Sultans. After his death, Sangama dynasty became weak. The next
dynasty, Saluva dynasty founded by Saluva Narasimha reigned only
for a brief period (1486-1509).
Krishna Deva Raya (1509 – 1530)
The Tuluva dynasty was founded by Vira Narasimha. The
greatest of the Vijayanagar rulers, Krishna Deva Raya belonged to
the Tuluva dynasty. He possessed great military ability. His imposing
personality was accompanied by high intellectual quality. His first
task was to check the invading Bahmani forces.
By that time the Bahmani kingdom was replaced
by Deccan Sultanates. The Muslim armies were
decisively defeated in the battle of Diwani by
Krishna Deva Raya. Then he invaded Raichur
Doab which had resulted in the confrontation with
the Sultan of Bijapur, Ismail Adil Shah. But,
Krishna Deva Raya defeated him and captured
the city of Raichur in 1520. From there he marched
on Bidar and captured it.
Krishna Deva Raya’s Orissa campaign was also successful.
He defeated the Gajapathi ruler Prataparudra and conquered the
whole of Telungana. He maintained friendly relations with the
Portuguese. Albuquerque sent his ambassadors to Krishna Deva
Raya.
Though a Vaishnavaite, he respected all religions. He was a
great patron of literature and art and he was known as Andhra Bhoja.
Eight eminent scholars known as Ashtadiggajas were at his royal
court. Allasani Peddanna was the greatest and he was called
The copper plate inscriptions such as the
Srirangam copper plates of Devaraya II provide
the genealogy and achievements of Vijayanagar
rulers. The Hampi ruins and other monuments of
Vijayanagar provide information on the cultural
contributions of the Vijayanagar rulers. The
numerous coins issued by the Vijayanagar rulers
contain figures and legends explaining their tittles
and achievements.
Political History
Vijayanagar was founded in 1336 by Harihara and Bukka of
the Sangama dynasty. They were originally served under the Kakatiya
rulers of Warangal. Then they went to Kampili where they were
imprisoned and converted to Islam. Later, they returned to the Hindu
fold at the initiative of the saint Vidyaranya. They also proclaimed
their independence and founded a new city on the south bank of the
Tungabhadra river. It was called Vijayanagar meaning city of victory.
The decline of the Hoysala kingdom enabled Harihara and
Bukka to expand their newly founded kingdom. By 1346, they
brought the whole of the Hoysala kingdom under their control. The
struggle between Vijayanagar and Sultanate of Madurai lasted for
about four decades. Kumarakampana’s expedition to Madurai was
described in the Maduravijayam. He destroyed the Madurai Sultans
and as a result, the Vijayanagar Empire comprised the whole of
South India up to Rameswaram.
The conflict between Vijayanagar Empire and the Bahmani
kingdom lasted for many years. The dispute over Raichur Doab,
the region between the rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra and also
over the fertile areas of Krishna-Godavari delta led to this long-
IBN BATTUTA 
KRISHNA
DEV A RA Y A
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The Empire was divided into different administrative units
called Mandalams, Nadus, sthalas and finally into gramas. The
governor of Mandalam was called Mandaleswara or Nayak.
Vijayanagar rulers gave full powers to the local authorities in the
administration.
Besides land revenue, tributes and gifts from vassals and feudal
chiefs, customs collected at the ports, taxes on various professions
were other sources of income to the government. Land revenue
was fixed generally one sixth of the produce. The expenditure of
the government includes personal expenses of king and the charities
given by him and military expenditure. In the matter of justice, harsh
punishments such as mutilation and throwing to elephants were
followed.
The Vijayanagar army was well-organized and efficient. It
consisted of the cavalry, infantry, artillery and elephants. High-breed
horses were procured from foreign traders. The top-grade officers
of the army were known as Nayaks or Poligars. They were granted
land in lieu of their services. These lands were called amaram.
Soldiers were usually paid in cash.
Social Life
Allasani Peddanna in his Manucharitam refers the existence
of four castes – Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras - in the
Vijayanagar society. Foreign travelers left vivid accounts on the
splendour of buildings and luxurious social life in the city of
Vijayanagar. Silk and cotton clothes were mainly used for dress.
Perfumes, flowers and ornaments were used by the people. Paes
mentions of the beautiful houses of the rich and the large number of
their household servants. Nicolo Conti refers to the prevalence of
slavery. Dancing, music, wrestling, gambling and cock-fighting were
some of the amusements.
Andhrakavita Pitamaga. His important works include
Manucharitam and Harikathasaram. Pingali Suranna and Tenali
Ramakrishna were other important scholars. Krishna Deva Raya
himself authored a Telugu work, Amukthamalyadha and Sanskrit
works, Jambavati Kalyanam and Ushaparinayam.
He repaired most of the temples of south India. He also built
the famous Vittalaswamy and Hazara Ramaswamy temples at
Vijayanagar. He also built a new city called Nagalapuram in memory
of his queen Nagaladevi. Besides, he built a large number of
Rayagopurams.
After his death, Achutadeva and Venkata succeeded the
throne. During the reign of Rama Raya, the combined forces of
Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golkonda and Bidar defeated him at the Battle
of Talaikotta in 1565. This battle is also known as Raksasa
Thangadi. Rama Raya was imprisoned and executed. The city of
Vijayanagar was destroyed. This battle was generally considered
to mark the end of the Vijayanagar Empire. However, the
Vijayanagar kingdom existed under the Aravidu dynasty for about
another century. Thirumala, Sri Ranga and Venkata II were the
important rulers of this dynasty. The last ruler of Vijayanagar kingdom
was Sri Ranga III.
Administration
The administration under the Vijayanagar Empire was well
organized. The king enjoyed absolute authority in executive, judicial
and legislative matters. He was the highest court of appeal. The
succession to the throne was on the principle of hereditary.
Sometimes usurpation to the throne took place as Saluva Narasimha
came to power by ending the Sangama dynasty. The king was
assisted by a council of ministers in his day to day administration.
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coin was the varaha but weights and measures varied from place
to place. Inland, coastal and overseas trade led to the general
prosperity. There were a number of seaports on the Malabar coast,
the chief being Cannanore. Commercial contacts with Arabia, Persia,
South Africa and Portugal on the west and with Burma, Malay
peninsula and China on the east flourished. The chief items of exports
were cotton and silk clothes, spices, rice, iron, saltpeter and sugar.
The imports consisted of horses, pearls, copper, coral, mercury,
China silk and velvet clothes. The art of shipbuilding had developed.
Cultural Contributions
The temple building activity further gained momentum during
the Vijayanagar rule. The chief characteristics of the Vijayanagara
architecture were the construction of tall Raya Gopurams or
gateways and the Kalyanamandapam with carved pillars in the
temple premises. The sculptures on the pillars were carved with
distinctive features. The horse was the most common animal found
in these pillars. Large mandapams contain one hundred pillars as
well as one thousand pillars in some big temples. These mandapams
were used for seating the deity on festival occasions. Also, many
Amman shrines were added to the already existing temples during
this period.
The most important temples of the
Vijayanagar style were found in the Hampi
ruins or the city of Vijayanagar.
Vittalaswamy and Hazara Ramaswamy
temples were the best examples of this style.
The Varadharaja and Ekamparanatha
temples at Kanchipuram stand as examples
for the magnificence of the Vijayanagara
style of temple architecture. The Raya
Gopurams at Thiruvannamalai and
EASTERN GOPURAM OF  
VARADHARAJA PERUMAL TEMPLE 
The Sangama rulers were chiefly Saivaites and Virupaksha
was their family deity. But other dynasties were Vaishnavites.
Srivaishnavism of Ramanuja was very popular. But all kings were
tolerant towards other religions. Borbosa referred to the religious
freedom enjoyed by everyone. Muslims were employed in the
administration and they were freely allowed to build mosques and
worship. A large number of temples were built during this period
and numerous festivals were celebrated. The Epics and the Puranas
were popular among the masses.
The position of women had not improved. However, some of
them were learned. Gangadevi, wife of Kumarakampana authored
the famous work Maduravijayam. Hannamma and Thirumalamma
were famous poets of this period. According to Nuniz, a large number
of women were employed in royal palaces as dancers, domestic
servants and palanquin bearers. The attachment of dancing girls to
temples was in practice. Paes refers to the flourishing devadasi
system. Polygamy was prevalent among the royal families. Sati was
honoured and Nuniz gives a description of it.
Economic Condition
According to the accounts of the foreign travelers, the
Vijayanagar Empire was one of the wealthiest parts of the world at
that time. Agriculture continued to be the chief occupation of the
people. The Vijayanagar rulers provided a stimulus to its further
growth by providing irrigation facilities. New tanks were built and
dams were constructed across the rivers like Tunghabadra. Nuniz
refers to the excavation of canals.
There were numerous industries and they were organized into
guilds. Metal workers and other craftsmen flourished during this
period. Diamond mines were located in Kurnool and Anantapur
district. Vijayanagar was also a great centre of trade. The chief gold
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Mahmud Gawan
The Bahmani kingdom reached its peak under the guidance of
Mahmud Gawan. He was a Persian merchant. He came to India at the
age of forty two and joined the services of Bahmani kingdom. Slowly
he became the chief minister due to his personal qualities. He remained
loyal to the kingdom. He lived a simple life and was magnanimous. He
was also a learned person. He possessed a great knowledge of
mathematics. He made endowments to build a college at Bidar which
was built in the Persian style of architecture. He was also a military
genius. He waged successful wars against Vijayanagar, Orissa and the
sea pirates on the Arabian sea. His conquests include Konkan, Goa
and Krishna-Godavari delta. Thus he expanded the Bahmani Empire
through his conquests.
His administrative reforms were also important. They were aimed
to increase the control of Sultan over the nobles and provinces. Royal
officers were appointed in each province for this purpose. Most of the
forts were under the control of
these officers. Allowances were
reduced to the nobles who shirked
their responsibility. This was
disliked by the nobles. So, the
Deccani nobles organised a plot
against Gawan. They induced the
Sultan to punish him with death
sentence. After the execution of
Gawan, the Bahmani kingdom
began to decline. Muhammad Shah was succeeded by weak Sultans.
During this period the provincial governors declared their independence.
By the year 1526, the Bahmani kingdom had disintegrated into five
independent sultanates. They were Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, Berar,
Golkonda and Bidar and known as Deccan Sultanates.
Chidambaram speak the glorious
epoch of Vijayanagar. They were
continued by the Nayak rulers in
the later period. The metal images
of Krishna Deva Raya and his
queens at Tirupati are examples
for casting of metal images. Music
and dancing were also patronized
by the rulers of Vijayanagar.
Different languages such as Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada and
Tamil flourished in the regions. There was a great development in
Sanskrit and Telugu literature. The peak of literary achievement was
reached during the reign of Krishna Deva Raya. He himself was a
scholar in Sanskrit and Telugu. His famous court poet Allasani
Peddanna was distinguished in Telugu literature. Thus the cultural
contributions of the Vijayanagar rulers were many-sided and
remarkable.
Bahmani Kingdom
The founder of the Bahmani kingdom was Alauddin Bahman
Shah also known as Hasan Gangu in 1347. Its capital was Gulbarga.
There were a total of fourteen Sultans ruling over this kingdom.
Among them, Alauddin Bahman Shah, Muhammad Shah I and Firoz
Shah were important. Ahmad Wali Shah shifted the capital from
Gulbarga to Bidar. The power of the Bahmani kingdom reached its
peak under the rule of Muhammad Shah III. It extended from the
Arabian sea to the Bay of Bengal. On the west it extended from
Goat to Bombay. On the east, it extended from Kakinada to the
mouth of the river Krishna. The success of Muhammad Shah was
due to the advice and services of his minister Mahmud Gawan.
 
 
Elephant Chariot – Hampi Ruins
Ruins of Golkonda Fort