Tamil States of the Sangam Age: Cheras, Cholas & Pandyas | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Sangam Age

• The Sangam literature, foreign accounts, and archaeological sources from various explored or excavated sites illuminate the political, economic, and religious life of the Sangam Age, roughly spanning from c. 300 B.C to A.D 300.
• The early historical period in South India is generally dated to the 3rd century BCE. However, recent archaeological findings from Kodumanal suggest the possibility of earlier beginnings, potentially as far back as the 4th century BCE.
• The early kingdoms of Tamilakam, situated between the Tirupati hills and the southernmost tip of the peninsula, emerged in fertile, rice-growing areas with rich agricultural potential.
• The principality of the Cholas in the lower Kaveri valley corresponded to modern Tanjore and Trichinopoly districts of Tamil Nadu, with its capital at Uraiyur.
• The kingdom of the Pandyas occupied the valleys of the Tamraparni and Vaigai rivers, roughly corresponding to modern Tirunelveli, Madurai, Ramnad districts, and south Travancore, with its capital at Madurai.
• The Cheras controlled the Kerala coast, with their capital at Karuvur, also known as Vanji.
• All these regions actively participated in the flourishing trade networks of the time.
• The premier Chola port was Puhar(Kaveripumpattinam), the major Pandya port was Korkai, and the major ports of the Chera kingdom were Tondi and Muchiri.

Sources

• The primary sources of information on the political history of the time include laudatory poems that often exaggerate the achievements and virtues of rulers. Tamil–Brahmi inscriptions corroborate the historicity and approximate dates of some rulers mentioned in these texts.

Cheras

• The Cheras ruled over parts of present-day Kerala, with their capital at Vanji. Their important seaports included Tondi and Musiri. The Cheras were known for their garland of palmyra flowers. The Pugalur inscription from the first century A.D. references three generations of Chera rulers. The Padirruppattu also provides insights into Chera kings.
• Notable rulers of the Chera dynasty included Perum Sorru Udhiyan Cheralathan,Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralathan, and Cheran Senguttuvan. Cheran Senguttuvan, who belonged to the 2nd century A.D., is famous for his military achievements, including an expedition to the Himalayas where he defeated several north Indian monarchs. He also introduced the Pattini cult, worshipping Kannagi as the ideal wife in Tamil Nadu. Senguttuvan brought back the stone for Kannagi's idol after his Himalayan expedition, and the consecration ceremony was attended by various princes, including Gajabhagu II from Sri Lanka.

Cholas

• The Chola kingdom during the Sangam period extended from modern Tiruchi district to southern Andhra Pradesh. Their capital was initially at Uraiyur and later moved to Puhar. The famous king Karikala is depicted in the Pattinappalai as a military conqueror. He defeated a confederacy of the Cheras, Pandyas, and eleven minor chieftains in the Battle of Venni, a feat mentioned in many Sangam poems. His victories in battles like Vahaipparandalai established him as the overlord of Tamil country.
• Under Karikala's reign, trade and commerce flourished. He reclaimed forest lands for cultivation, contributing to the prosperity of his people. He also constructed the Kallanai dam across the river Kaveri and built numerous irrigation tanks.

Pandyas

• The Pandyas ruled over present-day southern Tamil Nadu, with their capital at Madurai. The earliest kings of the Pandya dynasty included Nediyon,Palyagasalai Mudukudumi Peruvaludhi, and Mudathirumaran. Two notable Neduncheliyans include Aryappadai Kadantha Neduncheliyan, known for his victories over Aryan forces and for executing Kovalan, and Talaiyalanganattu Cheruvenra Neduncheliyan, who defeated enemies at the Battle of Talaiyalanganam, gaining control over Tamil Nadu.
• The Maduraikkanji, written by Mangudi Maruthanar, describes the socio-economic conditions of the Pandya country during this period.
• Minor Chieftains
• The minor chieftains of the Sangam period, including Pari,Kari,Ori,Nalli,Pegan,Ay, and Adiyaman, were known for their philanthropy and patronage of Tamil poets. Despite being subordinate to the Chera, Chola, and Pandya rulers, they were powerful and popular in their respective regions.

Decline of the Sangam Age

Towards the end of the third century A.D., the Sangam period began to decline. The Kalabhras occupied the Tamil country for about two and a half centuries, during which Jainism and Buddhism gained prominence. Eventually, the Pallavas in northern Tamil Nadu and the Pandyas in southern Tamil Nadu expelled the Kalabhras and established their rule.

Political Development:

• The Sangam poems depict the evolution of the state system in South India, reflecting a historical process where tribes diminished in number but remained as established units alongside the king. Evidence suggests that an organized political structure, though not yet stable, had emerged.

Kingship

Monarchy was the prevailing form of government during the Sangam period, with kingship descending hereditarily from father to son. The three crowned monarchs—the Cholas,Pandyas, and Cheras—each controlled distinct regions:

• Cholas: Ruled the fully irrigated and fertile Cauvery (Kaveri) basin with their capital at Uraiyur.
• Pandyas: Governed the pastoral and littoral areas with their capital at Madurai.
• Cheras: Administered the hilly regions in the west with Vanji (Karur) as their capital.

The Chera, Chola, and Pandya kings were known as vendar(crowned kings) and had distinct insignia of royalty, such as the staff, drum, and umbrella. Each dynasty had a royal emblem: fish for the Pandyas, tiger for the Cholas, and bow for the Cheras.

• The king, referred to as ventan, was the head of society and government, leading social events and assuming divine titles at coronation. The imperial court, or avai, included chiefs and officials, with surram advisers surrounding the king. The king was assisted by officials divided into five councils: ministers (amaichar), priests (anthanar), military commanders (senapathi), envoys (thuthar), and spies (orrar).
• The king was responsible for maintaining law and order, ensuring the welfare of subjects, and touring the country to oversee administration.

Chieftains:

• Chieftains were subordinate to the kings and were divided into two categories: Velir and Non-Velir.
• Some chieftains were great patrons of literature, as celebrated by Sangam poets who praised figures like Ay, Andiran, and Pari for their bravery and generosity.
• In Tamil–Brahmi inscriptions from South India, kings are referred to as "ko" or "kon," with princes also having these suffixes in their names.
• The Pugalur inscription's mention of an investiture ceremony for the heir apparent and references to subordinate rulers in Mangulam inscriptions provide insights into the administrative structure of the Pandyas.
• Inscriptions from the 2nd century BCE, such as those from Mangulam, highlight figures like the kalatika (superintendent of pearls) and kanatikan (chief of scribes), offering glimpses into the administrative organization.
• In the later Sangam period, monarchical power consolidated, reducing traditional chieftains to royal officers. However, in the post-Sangam period, these royal officers grew stronger while the central authority weakened.

Administration:

• The king's policies were regulated by a system of checks and balances within councils.
• Silappadikaram mentions two types of councils:
• Aimperunkulu: A council of five ministers, primarily responsible for administration and judicial matters.
• Enperayam: A larger assembly of eight government officers, mainly advisory, though their advice was rarely rejected by the king.
• Local units were governed by local assemblies, known as avai or manram, which are considered precursors to modern panchayats and were known for their just decisions.

Military:

• Wars were frequent, fought not only for defense but also to expand territories, rescue people from tyranny, or for matrimonial alliances.
• Military administration was well-organized, with each ruler maintaining a regular army and the four types of armies mentioned in Sangam literature: chariot, elephant, cavalry, and infantry.
• The Chera navy is also referenced in Sangam texts.
• Respect for warriors and heroes was profound, with herostones erected to commemorate those who died in battle.
• Prisons were established as a coercive measure, and internecine conflicts among kings and chieftains were common, often involving alliances against each other.

Influence of Northern Political Ideas:

• Sangam polity was influenced by North Indian political ideas, with rulers often associating themselves with deities like Siva and Vishnu and participating in the Mahabharata war.
• Rulers were also patrons of art and literature, performing yajnas (sacrifices) and reflecting similarities with North Indian traditions.

New Bases of Royal Prestige and Legitimacy:

• Royal prestige in Sangam poems was linked to the performance of Brahmanical sacrifices, connections with the northern epic tradition, and patronage of deities and Jaina ascetics.
• Vedic sacrifices were significant, with kings performing them and some chiefs claiming descent from sacrificial fire pits.
• Cult of the goddess Pattini: The Chera king Senguttuvan was credited with promoting the cult of Pattini, a deified figure representing chastity.
• Shiva worship: Figures like the Chola king Senganan were associated with Shiva worship, enhancing royal prestige through religious devotion.
• Patronage of Jainism: Inscriptions record the excavation of caves for Jaina monks and nuns, reflecting the patronage of Jain ascetics by various rulers.

Conclusion

• The study of Sangam literature reveals the emergence of the state in South India during this period, characterized by patriarchal and patrimonial systems where rulers directly controlled administrative staff and offices.
• While social inequalities were present, the sharp class distinctions seen in later times were not prominent in the Sangam age.
• Agriculture formed the backbone of the economy, with trade, particularly with the Mediterranean world, enriching the economy.
• The complex nature of Sangam religion, encompassing both animism and idol worship, reflects the diverse beliefs of the people.
• Many traditions from this period continued and evolved into later times, some persisting even today.