The Left, Congress Socialist Party, Communist Party of India and Other Left Parties | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Leftism in India

 Leftism in India  emerged from the unique political and economic conditions present in the country after World War I. Its development can be understood through three distinct streams: 

Stream I: Left within the Indian National Congress 

•  The leftist faction within the Indian National Congress gained prominence, exemplified by the formation of the  Congress Socialist Party in 1934  . 

Stream II: Rise of the Communist Party 

•  The Communist Party of India, established in  1925  , played a crucial role in this stream. 
•  It functioned as a part of the International Communist Movement and was largely under the control of the Comintern. 

Stream III: Other Organizations and Individuals 

• This stream includes various party organizations such as the  Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA)  , groups influenced by  M.N. Roy  , and the  Forward Bloc  . 
• Notable individuals in this stream include  Indulal Yagnik  ,  Sahjanand Saraswati  , and  Ranga  . 

Factors responsible for the rise of left 

• British rule and its colonial character:  British colonial rule exploited the Indian economy and various social structures, leading some patriotic intellectuals, especially those in the West, to gravitate towards Leftist ideologies. 

• Land-based exploitative system:  The oppressive land system and the exploitation of agricultural laborers contributed to the rise of leftist thought. 

• Kisan Sabha movement:  The emergence of the Kisan Sabha movement played a crucial role in highlighting the struggles of peasants and agricultural laborers. 

• Rise of modern industries:  The development of modern industries under a capitalistic system led to the exploitation of factory workers. This created a large and concentrated working population, paving the way for trade unionism and the leftist movement. 

• Financial burden of World War I:  The financial strain brought about by World War I, including rising prices, famine conditions, and profiteering by the business class, exposed the evils of imperialist-capitalist domination. 

• Appeal of Marxist revolutionary ideas:  The romantic allure of Marxist revolutionary concepts and the success of the new regime in the USSR inspired Indian intellectuals. The Russian Revolution symbolized the triumph of the people’s struggle, setting an example for anti-imperialist efforts in India. 

• Early Congress leaders and socialism:  Early leaders of the Congress had some degree of socialist inclination and were not entirely unaware of socialism. They were favorably disposed towards socialist ideas. 

• Aftermath of the Non-cooperation movement:  The disillusionment following the Non-cooperation movement led some individuals to seek alternative ideologies. Leftist ideologies emerged from this quest for a guiding spirit. 

• Gandhiji’s slogan of Swaraj:  Gandhiji’s call for Swaraj reoriented the political movement, drawing workers and peasants into the mainstream of national life. 

•  New generation of educated middle class:  A volatile segment of the educated middle class, facing unemployment, lost faith in 19th-century liberal economic ideology. 

• Radicals’ discontent:  Some radicals were dissatisfied with the exclusive focus on Swaraj without addressing socio-economic issues. They viewed the emphasis on non-violence as a hindrance to developing a genuine revolutionary mass struggle against British imperialism. 

• Rise of leftist leaders:  Leaders like M.N. Roy, S.C. Bose, and J.L. Nehru played a significant role in promoting leftist visions. They became advocates of radical solutions to socio-economic and political problems on socialist lines, appealing to the masses, youth, and students. 

• Leftist organizations and publications:  The rise of leftist organizations, newspapers, and journals contributed to the spread of leftist ideologies. 

• Disillusionment after Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience Movements:  The disillusionment following the suspension of the Non-Cooperation Movement and the end of the Civil Disobedience Movement fueled the appeal of leftist ideologies. 

• Great Depression of 1929:  The Great Depression exposed the weaknesses of the capitalist economy, bringing it into disrepute. It worsened the conditions of peasants and workers, while Russia thrived under successful five-year plans. This contrast drew attention to leftist ideologies. 

• Role of foreigners:  Foreign individuals involved in cases like the Meerut Conspiracy Case influenced the rise of leftist ideologies. 

• Suspension of Civil Disobedience Movement:  The suspension of the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1934 generated despair and unfulfilled expectations among the people. This discontent pushed leaders and the public towards leftist ideologies. 

• Global events:  Certain global events, such as the crisis of overproduction in the capitalistic system and the rise of antagonistic ideologies like Nazism, highlighted the failures of capitalism and drew attention to socialist principles and human rights.

Rise and growth of Communist Movement

Indian Communism  originated from within the National Movement, driven by disillusioned revolutionaries, Non-cooperators, Khilafatists, and labour-peasant activists seeking new paths to political and social freedom. 

M.N. Roy and the Founding of the Communist Party of India :

•  The movement was spearheaded by  Naren Bhattcherji  , known as  Manabendra Nath Roy  , who encountered the Bolshevik  Mikhail Borodin  in Mexico in 1919. 
•  In October  1920  , M.N. Roy, Abani Mukherjee, and Khilafatists like Mohammad Ali and Mohammad Shafiq established a Communist Party of India in  Tashkent  . 

M.N. Roy's Activities in Berlin:

•  Roy moved his base to  Berlin  and launched the  Vanguard of Indian Independence  and  India in Transition  , a Marxist analysis of India’s economy and society. 
•  He disseminated copies of the  Vanguard  to Indian nationalists, trade unionists, and intellectuals. 

Emergence of Communist Publications in India:

•  In  1923  , S.A. Dange began publishing the  Socialist  weekly in Bombay, and a Bengali weekly  Janavani  was launched in Calcutta. 
•  Other Indian revolutionary groups, like the  Berlin group  led by Virerdranath Challopadhyay and Bhupendranath Dutt, were also gravitating towards Marxism. 

 Ghadar Movement and Communist Shift:

•  By the mid- 1920s  , a faction of the  Ghadar Movement  in exile, including Rattan Singh, Santokh Singh, and Teja Singh Swatantra, had embraced Communism. 

Establishment of Links and Dual Organisation Plan:

•  Roy established fragile connections with nascent Communist groups in  India  by 1922 through emissaries like  Nalini Gupta  and  Shoukat Usmani  . 
•  He proposed a dual organisation plan for a secret Communist nucleus within a broad workers and peasants party. 

Return of Roy's Followers and Early Communist Activities in India:

•  Nalini Gupta  and  Abani Mukherji  returned to India in the early  1920s  , representing Roy and Challopadhyay respectively. 
•  The Communist International  Muhajirs  (Khilafatists) attempting to re-enter India faced government crackdowns, leading to arrests in various conspiracy cases. 

Communist Conference and Organizational Development:

•  Despite setbacks from repressive measures, an open Communist Conference in  Kanpur  in  December 1925  laid the groundwork for a more determined Communist organization. 
•  The conference, initially diverse and focused on preserving legality, was eventually dominated by committed Communists like S.V. Ghate. 

The history of the Communist movement can be divided into five distinct phases

 First phase: the Period of “Three Conspiracy Trials:

• After receiving thorough training  at Moscow at the Communist University and assured of adequate financial support from Moscow, the first band of Communist revolutionaries crossed into India only to find themselves accused of organising a conspiracy against the King Emperor. 
• The movement picked up  somewhat only after the Communist Party of Great Britain took upon itself to supervise and energies the movement in India. 
• R. Palme Dutt  became an important figure in this connection. 
• One of its emissaries, Philip Spratt  arrived in India in December 1926 and organised a number of unions, edited newspapers and launched some youth and front organisations. 
• The first workers  and  Peasants Party  were formed in Bengal in February, 1926 others followed in Bombay, the United Provinces and the Punjab. 
• During 1928–29 the Communist Party  organised a series of industrial strikes at Bombay. 
• The Communist movement during this period  attracted notice by its being involved in conspiracy trials thrice, viz.  Peshawar Conspiracy Trial (1922-23), Kanpur Conspiracy Trial (1924) and Meerut Conspiracy Trial (1929-33). 
• The anti-British stance  of the Communists gained for them sympathy of the nationalists. 
• Gandhiji visited the prisoners  in the jail in 1929 and expressed sympathy for the Communist leaders. 
• The long drawn out trial also  provided a handy opportunity to the Communist leaders to make politically-loaded propaganda speeches that received wide coverage in the nationalist press. 

Second Phase : The Period of Political Wilderness:

• The Communist Party of India (CPI) faced challenges in both organization and ideological direction during the rise of the nationalist movement.
• Following the guidance of the 6th Congress of the Communist International, the CPI severed its ties with the Congress Party.
• The Workers’ and Peasants’ Party was dissolved in 1929, deemed impractical to maintain a two-class party.
• In 1928, the CPI criticized both the right and left wings of the Indian National Congress.
• This occurred while the Congress was boycotting the Simon Commission (1928) and passing the resolution for Poorna Swaraj (December 1929).
• The CPI emphasized a triangular struggle against foreign imperialism and Indian exploiters.
• It criticized Gandhiji’s leadership, accusing him of being a tool of imperialism.
• The CPI labeled the Congress Left Wing as a counter-revolutionary force, claiming it obstructed the victory of the Indian nation.
• This strategic approach proved to be unrealistic.
• In July 1934, the CPI was declared illegal, leading to a split among communist factions into various groups.

Third Phase : Communists and the Anti-Imperialist United Front Plan. 

• The Communist Party of India (CPI) was reorganized in 1935 under the leadership of P.C. Joshi.
• The CPI cooperated with the Indian National Congress again, following the direction of the 7th Congress of the Communist International, which called for a united front to combat the threat of Fascism.
• R.P. Dutt and Ben Bradley, influenced by the 7th Congress, published a thesis in 1936 urging the formation of an Anti-Imperialist People’s Front in India.
• They viewed the Indian National Congress as a united front in the nationalist struggle and advised Communists to join the Congress, strengthen its left wing, and oust right-wing elements.
• The Communists, Congress Socialist Party (CSP), and Trade Unionists planned to organize a Front Populaire based on a common minimum program.
• However, the Communist leadership failed to capitalize on favorable circumstances and broaden their movement's social base, preventing the popular front from materializing.
• Despite this, the Communists regained their place among radical elements in Indian politics in the late 1930s, benefiting from the rising mass upsurge and increased political activity.

Fourth Phase : The Second World War and the Communist Somersault:

•  Initially, the Indian Communists, following the guidance of Comintern leaders, maintained their United Front Policy against all forms of imperialism, including Fascism and Nazism, when World War II began. 
•  They outperformed the Indian National Congress, which was initially hesitant and pro-British, with leaders like Gandhiji. By September 15, 1939, the Congress also recognized the war as an imperialist conflict. 
•  However, the Indian Communists faced a dilemma when Hitler invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941. The Soviet Union was seen as the bastion of socialism. 
•  In response, the Communists in India reversed their stance, framing the war as a "people's war" and pledging full support for the Allied-Russian effort. 
•  As a result of this shift, the Government of India legitimized the Communist Party of India (CPI) in 1942. 
•  The Communists went further by offering support and even acting as British informants to suppress the Quit India Movement in 1942. They viewed the attainment of freedom as a "farce." 
•  This abrupt change in Communist policy was met with strong criticism from nationalist circles and highlighted that the CPI's decisions were influenced by external and international forces. 

Fifth phase : The Transfer of Power Negotiations and Communists’ Multi-National Plan:

• The CPI was pro-Muslim and aimed to widen the gap between the Congress and the Muslim League, promoting the idea of India being divided into several sovereign states.
• They wanted to gain control over at least one state to use it as a base for liberating the rest of India.
• However, the Muslim League rejected the idea of teaming up with the Communists, leaving the CPI as a discredited group.
• In 1942, the CPI declared India as a multi-national state with 16 identified "nations".
• By 1946, they proposed to the Cabinet Mission a plan to divide India into 17 separate sovereign states, similar to the Balkans or the USSR.
• By 1947, the Communist movement in India had lost its political standing, and the CPI was in disarray.
• During a time when most people were focused on freeing India from British rule, the CPI's foreign loyalties and reliance on European models made it suspicious.
• The Communist idea of Proletarian Internationalism clashed with India's national goals, and Marxism's core beliefs in class conflict and violence were foreign to Indian traditions.
• However, Marxist-Leninist philosophy, without its foreign loyalties, could find relevance in independent India due to the growing gap between the rich and the poor and the underdeveloped economy.
• This creates a fertile ground for Marxist Socialism to take root and guide the marginalized masses.

“The communist had a love-hate relationship with the congress. Hence their role in nationalist movement from 1925-1947 depended upon their attitude towards congress and their theorization and re-theorization of Indian situation.” Critically examine the role played by the communists in India’s struggle against the colonial rule.

• The Communist Party of India (CPI) aimed to free India from imperial rule while adhering to Marxist principles, focusing on the struggle between the working class and capitalist and feudal elements. 
• Initially, due to British suspicion, the communists operated through the Workers and Peasants Party (WPP), gaining momentum within and outside the Congress party. 
• The CPI's relationship with the Congress varied over time, influenced by the Communist International's strategic decisions. 

Shift in Strategy:

• In 1929, the Comintern viewed national movements in colonial countries as bourgeois-led and not truly anti-imperialist. 
• This led the CPI to perceive the Congress as a bourgeois party and to distance itself from the Congress, advocating for a more militant stance against British imperialism. 

Radicalization and New Policies:

• The CPI, accepted as the Indian section of the Communist International in 1934, adopted more radical policies.
• It rejected non-violent struggle and advocated for armed resistance against British rule.
• The party proposed various radical demands, including zamindari abolition and nationalization of key industries.
• It distanced itself from the Civil Disobedience Movement.

United Front and Changing Dynamics:

• The Seventh Party Congress in 1935 prompted a shift towards a united front with bourgeois national movements against fascism, leading to renewed cooperation with the Congress. 
• The Dun-Bradley Thesis in 1936 recognized the Congress's central role in the anti-imperialist struggle, further integrating the communists into the mainstream national movement. 

Impact of World War II:

• The outbreak of World War II in 1939 created a rift between the Congress and the CPI. 
• The Congress sought to support the British war efforts under certain conditions, while the CPI, influenced by Stalin's pact with Germany, initially labeled the British war efforts as imperialist. 

Shift in CPI Stance:

• The CPI's stance shifted dramatically following Hitler's invasion of Russia in June 1941.
• Subsequent alliance formed between the Soviet Union and Britain.
• The CPI then supported the British war efforts against fascism.
• Distancing itself from the Quit India Movement and collaborating with British authorities.
• Suppressed the Quit India Movement during this period.

Post-Independence Views:

• After India's independence in 1947, the CPI declared the freedom to be a facade, reflecting its complex and evolving relationship with the Congress and its reliance on external influences for political guidance. 

Conclusion:

• The role of communists in India’s struggle against colonial rule was marked by a fluctuating relationship with the Congress.
• There were internal ideological dilemmas and shifts in strategy influenced by international developments.
• Their journey saw a transition from radicalism to mainstream acceptance.
• Collaboration with the British illustrates the complexities of the nationalist movement.
• Different factions within the movement had varying trajectories.