The Transition to Food Production: Neolithic– Chalcolithic, and Chalcolithic Villages - 2 | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

Early Settlements in the Gomal River Valley

The Gomal River valley, a region in the Dera Ismail Khan district, has several early archaeological sites. Among these, Gumla and Rahman Dheri have been excavated, revealing different cultural phases.

Gumla Excavation

• Conducted by a team from Peshawar University in 1971.
• Identified six cultural phases, with the first two being significant for understanding early settlement patterns.

Period I

• Featured a small settlement of just over 0.40 hectares.
• Artifacts included microliths, bones of domesticated cattle, hearths, and large community ovens.
• This period was a-ceramic, meaning no pottery was found.

Period II

• Marked the introduction of pottery.
• Early pots had rough surfaces, followed by finer pottery decorated with geometric designs, images of cattle, and fish.
• Terracotta female figurines, microliths, and a few objects made of copper and bronze were also discovered.
• Other terracotta items included bangles, cart models, game pieces, and figurines of cattle and females.
• Notably, some pottery designs and female figurines from Gumla showed similarities with those found in Turkmenistan, Central Asia.

Sheri Khan Tarakai

• Located in the Bannu basin, north of Gumla and Rahman Dheri.
• Radiocarbon dating suggested an occupation range of approximately 4500–3000 BCE for the earliest levels.
• Houses were primarily constructed from mud-bricks set on stone foundations.
• Artifacts included ground celts, microliths, saddle querns, ring stones, and bone tools.
• Terracotta spindle-whorls and figurines of females and bulls (some painted) were found, along with evidence of barley cultivation.
• Animal bones from sheep, goats, cattle, and buffalo were present, as well as freshwater mollusks and chank shells.
• Pottery varied from coarse handmade types with black slips and painted designs to rusticated forms with rough surfaces and decorative painting.

Sarai Khola

• Situated in the northern part of Punjab province, Pakistan, on the edge of the Potwar plateau.
• Excavated by the Pakistan Archaeological Department between 1968 and 1971.
• Revealed neolithic occupation dating back to around the 4th millennium BCE.
• Period I featured handmade plain red or brown burnished pottery with mat impressions on the base, along with ground and polished stone tools, microliths, and bone points.
• Terracotta wheels and toy carts were also unearthed.

Archaeological Findings at Nal and Kulli Sites

Nal Site: Location and Excavation: Nal is a 5-hectare site located in the Khozdar area of Baluchistan, which connects northern and southern Baluchistan. It was first excavated in 1925. 

Structures and Burials: The excavations revealed structures made from boulders found in a nearby riverbed and stone quarried from local hills. Several burials were discovered, mostly consisting of fractional burials in pots, along with some complete skeletons in defined and undefined graves. Notably, a child was found buried in a small mud-brick chamber grave with grave goods, including a bead necklace and a crystal pendant. 

Pottery: Nal pottery is characterized by polychrome designs and various shapes, often with disc bases. Common types include:

• Ovoid, narrow-mouthed pots
• Carinated pots with narrow mouths
• Almost straight-walled jars
• Open bowls
• Carinated bowls with inward-turning upper bodies
• Canisters with flat bottoms and round, straight-edged mouths
• Geometric and naturalistic designs, such as fish and ibex, were painted in blue, red, and/or yellow. 

Artefacts: Various artefacts were found at Nal, including:

• Stone balls, discs, ring stones, and grinding stones
• Silver foil
• Beads made of agate, crystal, carnelian, lapis lazuli, and paste
• Cattle figurines
• Copper objects and an adze made of copper alloyed with nickel and lead
• Pottery Chronology: While there are no radiocarbon dates from Nal, the pottery is considered contemporaneous with Periods I and II at Damb Sadaat and Period IV of Anjira and Siah Damb. 

Water Management Systems: Nal-related sites are linked with two water management systems:

• Stone embankments built across hill slopes to block soil washed down by rains, creating terraces for crop cultivation after rains.
• Channelizing water from low-lying basins into fields through small dams and canals.
• Kulli Site:Location and Excavation: Kulli is a 12-hectare site in the Kolwa tract, of which only the upper levels have been excavated. 

Structures and Artefacts: The site features multi-roomed stone structures. Artefacts discovered include:

• Stone querns and rubbing stones
• Beads made of semi-precious stones such as lapis lazuli, agate, and carnelian
• Bone bangles
• A small quantity of copper, gold, and glass
• Pottery: Kulli pottery is richly ornamented, with typical motifs depicting cattle with elongated bodies and large round eyes, usually set in a landscape. 
• Analogous Sites: Similar remains have been found at sites such as Mehi, Niai Buthi, Adam Buthi, Nindowari, and Edith Shahr, with Adam Buthi being the earliest site dated to 3500–3000 BCE.

Early Settlements in the Makran Coast and Cholistan Desert

• Bala Kot (Makran Coast, Baluchistan)
• Site Overview: Bala Kot is a 2.8-hectare archaeological site located on the Makran coast of south Baluchistan, at the mouth of the Windar River.
• Period I: This phase represents a neolithic occupation dated from the late 5th to early 3rd millennium BCE.
• Architecture: Houses during this period were constructed using mud-bricks.
• Pottery: Some wheel-made pottery found at Bala Kot was similar to that discovered at Nal.
• Tools and Artefacts: A variety of tools and artefacts were unearthed, including microliths, terracotta figurines of humped bulls, beads made of stone, lapis lazuli, shell, and paste, as well as terracotta, shell, and bone objects. There were also a small number of copper items.
• Agriculture and Domestication: Evidence suggests the cultivation of barley and the domestication of animals such as cattle, sheep, and goats. Animal bones found at the site included those of buffalo, deer, pig, and hare.
• Other Sites: In addition to Bala Kot, other early village sites in the Makran area include Miri Qalat and Shahi Tump.

Early Village Settlements in the Cholistan Desert

• Location: Early village settlements are found in the Cholistan desert of Bahawalpur, specifically on the alluvial plain of the Ghaggar-Hakra River.
• River History: The Ghaggar-Hakra River, which is now dry, once flowed east of the Indus River and was likely a significant waterway in ancient times.
• Pottery: The earliest settlements in this region featured handmade and wheel-made pottery, including large and small vessels with a mud coating mixed with pottery shards, thick and thin pottery with incised lines, and carinated or globular vases with a black slip on the exterior. This pottery is known as Hakra wares.
• Research Findings: Research by M. R. Mughal in 1997 indicated that Hakra settlements date back to the middle of the 4th millennium BCE or earlier.
• Site Identification: Currently, 99 Hakra wares sites have been identified, ranging from small settlements under 5 hectares to larger ones of 20–30 hectares. Approximately 52% of these sites appear to be temporary camps, while 45% seem to be more permanent settlements, with some indicating craft specialization.
• Artefacts: Found artefacts at Hakra wares sites include microliths, grinding stones, terracotta cattle figurines, shell and terracotta bangles, and copper pieces. At the Valwali site, bits of copper and 32 terracotta figurines, including humped bulls, were discovered.
• Geographic Spread: Hakra wares have been found outside the Ghaggar-Hakra valley, such as at Jalilpur in the Punjab plains of Pakistan, near the Ravi River.
• Period I at Jalilpur: This period showed evidence of Hakra wares alongside artefacts like stone, gold, coral, and semi-precious stone beads, chert blades, and bone points. Terracotta net sinkers, used for fishing, suggested that fishing was a crucial part of the subsistence strategy. Animal bone remains of sheep, goat, cattle, and gazelle were also discovered.

Harappa and the Early Harappan Phase

• Harappa, located along the Ravi River, has revealed evidence of an early period known as the Ravi aspect of the Hakra phase, dating back to around 3500/3300–2800 BCE. This period was characterized by the remains of a small village consisting of huts constructed from wooden posts with walls made of plastered reeds. 
• During excavations, some mud-brick fragments were discovered, possibly indicating the presence of a kiln, but there were no signs of mud-brick structures. 
• Various artefacts were found, including pottery, stone and bone tools, broken necklaces, terracotta spindle whorls, steatite beads, and bangles made from shell and terracotta. 
• However, the most significant finding was the potsherds featuring pre-firing marks and post-firing graffiti, which are believed to represent the early stages of the Harappan script. 
• In Period IA at Kunal, located in the Hisar district of Haryana, Hakra wares have also been discovered. The early levels of this settlement indicate a small community (around 1 hectare in size) with pottery designs featuring pipal leaves and a bull with highly curved horns. Artefacts from this period included bone tools, micro-blades made of chalcedony, and copper fishhooks and arrowheads. 
• The inhabitants of Kunal built their houses on artificially raised areas, with house floors constructed by digging a pit and paving it with rammed earth. The floors were situated below ground level, and the walls were plastered with mud. Wooden posts supported a wattle-and-daub superstructure, as indicated by the post-holes found around the perimeter of the houses. 
• Although no radiocarbon dates are currently available for Kunal, the findings suggest a similar cultural context to that of Harappa. 
• Bhirrana, a recently excavated site in the Fatehabad district of Haryana, has provided further insights into the Hakra wares culture during Period IA. 
• The residents of Bhirrana lived in shallow mud-plastered pit dwellings, varying in depth from 34 to 58 cm and in diameter from 230 to 340 cm. In addition to dwelling pits, pits used for sacrifices or industrial activities, as well as refuse pits, were identified. 
• Alongside the typical Hakra wares, various other pottery types were found at Bhirrana, including mud applique ware, incised ware, tan slipped/chocolate slipped ware, black burnished ware, brown on buff ware, bi-chrome wares, black-and-red ware, and red wares. 
• A diverse range of artefacts was also uncovered, such as beads made from carnelian, agate, jasper, and lapis lazuli ; plain and painted terracotta bangles; sling balls made of sandstone and terracotta; an unbaked triangular cake; a sandstone quern and pestle; a crucible; a clay hopscotch; a chert blade; and a bone point.

The Vindhyan Fringes and Other Areas

The detailed information about early agricultural villages in the north-west is due to the abundance of data from this region. However, another early center of agricultural-pastoral communities was located in the Vindhyan fringes of southern Uttar Pradesh. Here, over 40 Neolithic sites have been identified along the Belan, Adwa, Son, Rihand, Ganga, Lapari, and Paisuni rivers. Excavations at sites such as Koldihwa, Mahagara, Pachoh, and Indari have revealed Neolithic levels.

Key Issues

• Dates: There is a need to determine the precise dates of the Neolithic levels at these sites.
• Rice Remains: It is crucial to establish whether the rice remains found at several sites belong to wild or domesticated varieties.

The Neolithic culture in the Vindhyan fringes developed from a well-established Mesolithic phase. While some Mesolithic features like microlith blades and heavier stone tools persisted, new features such as the domestication of cattle and the cultivation of rice emerged. The discovery of wild rice at Mesolithic levels in sites like Chopani Mando and domesticated rice at Damdama indicates the early domestication of rice in this region.

Koldihwa and Mahagara

Koldihwa

• Located on the banks of the Belan River in Allahabad district, UP, Koldihwa showed cultural continuity from the Neolithic to the Iron Age.
• Neolithic levels revealed remains of rice and impressions of rice husk in burnt clay.
• The site yielded stone blades, polished stone celts, microliths (mostly made on chert), querns and mullers (used for grinding), and bone tools.
• Pottery was handmade and included net-marked or cord-marked pottery, plain red pottery, and black-and-red ware. Dominant shapes included deep bowls and storage jars, with some red ware showing soot marks, indicating cooking use.
• There is an ongoing debate about the dates of the Neolithic phase at Koldihwa. Some calibrated C-14 dates suggest early dates between the 8th and 6th millennium BCE, while other dates are later.

Mahagara

• Also located in Allahabad district, Mahagara is another important site with evidence of Neolithic culture.
• Excavations have revealed similar findings to Koldihwa, including rice remains and various stone and pottery artifacts.

Mahagara

• Mahagara, located on the right bank of the Belan river and close to the mesolithic site of Chopani Mando, is a significant neolithic site.
• At Mahagara, floors and post-holes linked to 20 huts were discovered.
• Impressions of reed or bamboo on clumps of mud indicate that the walls of these huts were constructed using a technique called wattle and daub.
• Various neolithic tools such as blades, microliths, celts, querns, mullers, and sling balls were found on the floors of the huts.
• Additionally, pottery, bone arrowheads, terracotta beads, and animal bones were unearthed at the site.
• One notable find was a cattle pen measuring approximately 12.5 × 7.5 meters, situated in the center of the settlement.
• This pen had an irregular layout, marked by 20 post-holes indicating where posts once stood, and it featured at least three openings.
• Inside the pen, clusters of hoof marks from cattle of various ages were found, suggesting that 40 to 60 animals were housed there.
• Hoof marks from sheep or goats were also discovered outside the pen, indicating the regular movement of these animals between the huts and the enclosure.
• The animal bones excavated included those of cattle, sheep, goats, horses, deer, and wild boars, with the first three species likely being domesticated.
• Botanical remains included rice husk found within pottery, indicating that the inhabitants hunted wild animals, gathered wild plant foods, and domesticated both plants and animals.

Kunjhun

• Kunjhun, located in the Son valley of Sidhi district, Madhya Pradesh, near Koldihwa, is another significant neolithic site dating back to the 4th millennium BCE.
• At Kunjhun, evidence of both wild and domesticated rice was found, suggesting the site was involved in early rice cultivation.
• Additionally, Kunjhun appears to have been a factory site for producing stone artifacts, with archaeologists identifying areas where stone was heated to enhance its colour and workability before being fashioned into blades.

Lahuradeva

• Recent excavations at Lahuradeva in Sant Kabir Nagar district, eastern Uttar Pradesh, indicate the spread of early agricultural settlements into the central Ganga plain.
• Lahuradeva features a 220 × 140 meter mound rising about 4 meters above the surrounding plain, bordered by a lake on three sides.
• The site revealed a five-fold cultural sequence from the neolithic period to the early centuries CE, with Neolithic Period I further divided into Periods IA and IB.
• During Period IA, cord-impressed red ware and black-and-red ware pottery were present, mostly handmade with some wheel-made examples.
• Burnt clay fragments indicate the presence of wattle-and-daub houses, while plant remains included rice and wild grasses, with rice husk marks found in several potsherds, suggesting the presence of domesticated rice.
• The calibrated dates for Period IA at Lahuradeva range from the late 6th to early 5th millennia BCE.

Early Evidence of Agriculture

• In Ladakh, the neolithic site of Giak has been dated to the 6th millennium BCE, suggesting early agricultural practices.
• Pollen studies in Rajasthan's salt lakes (Didwana, Lunkaransar, and Sambhar) show an increase in cereal-type pollen around 7000 BCE, indicating possible forest clearance and the beginnings of agriculture.

Pollen Studies and Early Agriculture

• Cereal pollen dating back to 8000 BCE has been found in the Nilgiri hills of South India, suggesting early plant management.
• In the Horton plains of central Sri Lanka, pollen analysis indicates early cereal plant management and slash-and-burn cultivation techniques around 17500 BP, with the cultivation of oats and barley by 13000 BP.

Neolithic, Neolithic–Chalcolithic, and Chalcolithic Communities, C. 3000–2000 BCE

• During the period of 3000–2000 BCE, village settlements expanded into new areas within the Indian subcontinent.
• These settlements were roughly contemporary with the urban Harappan civilization, which will be discussed in the next chapter.
• The available information for this period is more substantial compared to earlier millennia, allowing for the identification of distinctive characteristics in various geographical zones.

The North and North-West

Neolithic Sites in Kashmir Valley

• The Kashmir Valley is home to several neolithic sites located near Srinagar and between Baramulla and Anantnag. Some of these sites include Burzahom, Gufkral, Hariparigom, Jayadeviudar, Olchibag, Pampur, Panzgom, Sombur, Thajiwor, Begagund, Waztal, Gurhoma Sangri, and Damodara.
• During the Pleistocene era, the Kashmir Valley was a massive lake, and the neolithic sites we see today are situated on the remnants of ancient lake beds known as karewas.

Burzahom Excavations

• Burzahom is a key archaeological site located on a terrace of karewa clay, above the floodplain of the Jhelum River, about 16 km northeast of Srinagar. The site offers picturesque views of green fields and the nearby Dal Lake, which is just 2 km away.
• The name Burzahom comes from the Kashmiri word meaning "place of birch". Excavations revealed burnt birch remnants, indicating that birch trees were present in the area during neolithic times. The site was likely surrounded by forests with nearby water sources, prompting neolithic people to clear some trees to establish their settlement.
• Burzahom was first discovered in 1935 by de Terra and Paterson, who initially believed it to be part of the Harappan civilization. Its true significance was recognized later when the Archaeological Survey of India conducted excavations from 1960 to 1971 under T. N. Khazanchi.
• The site shows evidence of four periods of occupation: two neolithic periods, one megalithic period, and an early historical period. Period I has been radiocarbon dated to before c. 2920 BCE.

Period I at Burzahom

• A key feature of Period I at Burzahom is the presence of mud-plastered pit dwellings. These pits were typically round or oval, narrower at the top and widening towards the base. The largest pit measures 3.96 m deep, with a diameter of 2.74 m at the top and 4.57 m at the bottom.
• Post-holes around the circumference of the pits indicate where wooden poles supported a roof made of pinewood and thatched with birch. Some deeper pits had steps, but they did not extend to the bottom, possibly to avoid narrowing the space too much. Ladders may have been used for entering and exiting the deeper pits.
• Inside the pits, archaeologists found charcoal, ash, potsherds, and hearths made of stone or clay. There were also square and rectangular pit chambers, about 1 m deep, with one measuring 6.4 × 7 m. Some of these pit chambers had stone or clay hearths.
• Notably, square and rectangular pit chambers were located in the center of the settlement, while round and oval pits were found at the periphery. Storage pits, measuring 60-91 cm in diameter, containing stone and bone tools and animal bones, were situated close to the living pits. Stone hearths near the mouths of some dwelling pits suggest that people also lived outdoors at ground level, likely during the warm summer months.

New Directions in Research

Did people actually live in the Burzahom pits?

• Pits discovered at Neolithic sites in Burzahom, Gufkral, and various locations in the Swat Valley have traditionally been viewed as evidence of winter homes for Neolithic communities. 
• These pits, filled with steps, ash, charcoal, and potsherds, were believed to indicate that people resided there during the harsh winters of Kashmir, moving to ground level in summer. However, this interpretation is being re-evaluated.

Questioning the Traditional View

• Researchers R. A. E. Conningham and T. L. Sutherland have challenged the idea that these pits were used for living, drawing parallels with British Iron Age sites where similar pits were once thought to be dwellings.
• Experiments by P. J. Reynolds revealed that lighting a fire in such a pit creates an unbearable smoke-filled atmosphere, casting doubt on their use for cooking or heating.

Alternative Functions of Pits

• The firing of pits might have been for purposes like extending their lifespan, clearing mold, or speeding up the drying of mud plaster, rather than for domestic activities.
• The absence of soot on the pit sides suggests they were not regularly used for fires, leading to the hypothesis that they could have served as underground grain storage units.

Rethinking the Kashmir-Swat Pits

• Conningham and Sutherland propose that sites like Burzahom may not have been occupied year-round. Instead, these pits could have been used in winter while people migrated to lower, less severe areas during summer.
• The pits might have been occupied only in spring and summer, with surplus grain stored for winter and spring sowing.

Current Scholarly Debate

• While most scholars still view the Kashmir-Swat pits as dwellings, the alternative hypothesis illustrates how the same evidence can be interpreted differently.

Period I

Burzahom Period I saw the discovery of poorly fired, handmade, coarse pottery in various colors like grey, red, brown, and buff. The pottery included simple rimless bowls and bottle shapes with flared rims. Many pots had mat impressions on their bases, indicating they were made on mats.

• Stone tools from this period included:
• Oval and oblong stone axes (some were pecked and ground)
• Chisels, adzes, grinding stones, ring stones, and mace heads
• Distinctive ‘harvesters’—rectangular stone choppers or knives with two or more holes on the blunt side

Burzahom also had a bone tool industry producing various artefacts such as:

• Points, harpoons, and needles (with and without eyes)
• Awls (likely for stitching animal skins), spear heads, daggers, and scrapers

Tools were also crafted from antlers. Interestingly, no burials were found in Period I, suggesting a different method of disposing of the dead.

Period II

In Period II, the inhabitants of Burzahom transitioned from pit dwellings to ground-level houses. Some pits were filled with karewa soil, their surfaces plastered with mud and topped with a thin layer of red ochre, forming the floors of huts constructed from mud, mud-brick, and timber. 

• This period also saw an increase in burials, predominantly within the habitation areas. The dead were usually interred under house floors or in compounds, in oval pits plastered with lime. Both inhumation and secondary burial practices were observed. In secondary burials, bones were sometimes covered with red ochre, while in primary burials, bodies were placed in a flexed position. 
• Grave goods were rare, with only occasional beads found around the necks of some bodies. Evidence of trepanning, or boring holes in skulls, was also noted in one of the skulls. Period II at Burzahom continued until at least around 1700 BCE.

Burzahom: Bone Tools, Including Needle with Eye

Bone Arrowhead

Perforated Harvester

• During Period II of the neolithic site at Burzahom, an intriguing practice involved burying humans alongside a variety of wild and domesticated animals. Wild animals such as deer, wolf, ibex, nilgai, snow leopard, and pig were buried with humans, as well as domesticated animals like cattle, buffalo, dog, sheep, and goat. 
• It is possible that these animals were killed and buried with the deceased or that their meat was placed in the grave as part of the burial goods.

Pets and Animal Burials

• The interment of dogs with humans suggests that pets were sometimes buried with their owners. There were also instances of separate pit burials for animals within the habitation area. 
• In one case, five dogs were buried along with antlers, indicating a significance placed on these animals.

Pottery and Artifacts

• Artefacts from Period II included pottery, mainly handmade, with some new shapes and a black burnished pottery that appears to have been a deluxe ware. The pottery shapes included dishes with hollow stands, globular pots, jars, stems with triangular perforations, and a funnel-shaped vase. 
• A notable type in the black burnished ware is a high-necked jar with a flaring rim, globular body, and base, featuring oblique notches incised on the lower part of the neck. Stone and bone tools continued to be present, similar to those of Period I, but were more numerous and better finished. 
• Stone tools included harvesters, and a single copper arrowhead was found towards the end of Period II. Microwear analysis of Burzahom neolithic tools has indicated that tools were often re-ground and re-shaped. Handaxes were used for various purposes, including cutting, chopping, and dressing wood, as well as chopping meat. Ring stones were identified as functioning as mace heads.

Engraved Stone Slabs

• Two engraved stone slabs were discovered in Burzahom Period II. One slab features an indistinct engraving, tentatively identified as a hut with a thatched conical roof and the hind portion of an animal. 
• The other engraving depicts a hunting scene, showing a stag being hunted by two hunters with a spear and an arrow.

Hunting, Fishing, and Agriculture

• Hunting and fishing were significant activities for the neolithic people of Burzahom, as evidenced by animal bones, the engraved hunting scene, and the presence of weapons such as spearheads, arrowheads, and harpoons. Initially, there was no direct evidence of agriculture at the site, but recent analysis of botanical remains from Periods I and II has provided direct evidence of cultivated wheat, barley, and lentils. Harvesters, stone querns, flake knives, mace heads, and seeds of wild plants were initially interpreted as indirect evidence of some level of cultivation.
• The Kashmir Neolithic is characterized by a variety of stone and bone tools, pit dwellings, perforated harvesters, and animal burials. Some of these features are also found in sites across Central Asia and China. Notable discoveries from the early levels of Period II include a wheel-made red pot containing 950 exquisite agate and carnelian beads, and a globular pot depicting what appears to be a horned deity, a motif seen in early Harappan levels at Kot Diji. This indicates a possible connection between the Neolithic communities of Burzahom and the Indus region.
• Gufkral, located 41 km southeast of Srinagar near Tral, has a cultural sequence that spans from the Neolithic to the historical period. The Neolithic phase at Gufkral is divided into three sub-phases: Period IA, IB, and IC. Period IB has a calibrated date of 2468–2139 BCE, suggesting that Period IA could date back to around 3000 BCE or even earlier.
• During Period I at Gufkral, similar to Burzahom, there were pit dwellings that were circular or oval in shape, with a wider base and a narrower top. The diameters of these dwellings varied from 3.80 m to 1.50 m at the top. The larger dwelling pits, mostly from the earlier phase, were shallow, ranging from 20 to 30 cm in depth. 
• These dwelling pits were surrounded by storage pits and hearths, with post-holes indicating where wooden posts were placed to support a superstructure made of grass and reed. To prevent water and snow intrusion, the bases of the houses may have been plastered with mud. In the earlier dwelling pits of Period IA, floors were plastered with red ochre paste. Some pits were later enlarged, and two-chambered dwelling pits were also discovered. Initially, hearths were rectangular in shape, but later phases saw the emergence of circular and rectangular clay hearths. Notably, no hearth or fireplace was found inside the dwelling pits.
• Period IA at Gufkral was a-ceramic, with finds including polished stone tools and a large quern with ochre paste in the depression. Tools made of bone and horn, such as small arrowheads and a bone needle with an eye, were also found. The tips of bone tools were often charred to strengthen the working edge. 
• Other artifacts included steatite beads and a broken terracotta marble. Animal bones found at the site included those of wild species such as sheep, goat, cattle, red deer, Himalayan ibex, wolf, and bear, as well as some bones of domesticated sheep and goats. This suggests that the people of Gufkral were primarily reliant on hunting but were beginning to domesticate certain animals. Plant remains found at the site included barley, wheat, and lentils.

Gufkral: Neolithic Site in Kashmir

Period IB (c. 2468–2139 BCE):

• The first pottery at Gufkral appeared in Period IB. It was handmade and mostly grey (there were a few red pots), with mat impressions on the base. Big jars, bowls, and basins were the common shapes.
• Pit Dwellings and Structures: The pit dwellings from earlier periods disappeared. A 5–7 cm thick compact clay floor mixed with lime was found, extending over the excavated area. Additionally, a mud and rubble wall and a compact 70 cm wide wall-like structure were discovered.
• Tools and Technology: Polished stone tools and bone tools continued to be used.
• Animal Remains: Bones of red deer, ibex, bear, sheep, goats, cattle, and fowl were found, many with sharp cut marks, indicating hunting and increased domestication of sheep, goats, and cattle. The proportion of wolf bones decreased, while dog bones increased. Grains and Food: Grains from Period IA continued, with the addition of common peas (Pisum arvense). Large quantities of charcoal and charred wood pieces indicated extensive fire use.
• Radiocarbon Dating: A radiocarbon date from Period IB ranged from 2468–2139 BCE.

Period IC (c. 2000–1620 BCE):

• Pottery: Wheel-made pots appeared, including grey, burnished grey, red, and black wares, with new shapes like long-necked jars and dish-on-stand with triangular perforated designs.
• Tools: Stone querns, pounders, and double-holed harvesters were found, along with a neolithic celt. Stone and terracotta spindle whorls with large holes suggested woollen cloth weaving.
• Ornaments and Artifacts: Terracotta bangles and potsherds with graffiti marks were discovered, along with a copper hairpin with a flattened spiral head.
• Animal Remains: Domesticated animal bones included sheep, goats, cattle, pigs, and dogs, along with fish, hare, rodents, hedgehogs, and beavers. Hunting continued to decline in importance, while animal breeding increased.

Gufkral and Swat Valley Sites       

• Similarities: There are similarities between the Neolithic sites of Kashmir, like Gufkral, and those in the Swat Valley of north Pakistan. For instance, the archaeological sequence in the Ghaligai cave of the Swat Valley may date back to around c. 3000 BCE.
• Ghaligai Cave Findings: At the lowest levels of the Ghaligai cave, coarse handmade pottery was found, some with a slip and others with a burnished interior. Additionally, pebble tools and bone points were discovered.
• Comparison with Burzahom: Although there are similarities between the pottery types found at Ghaligai and those at Burzahom Period I, it is notable that polished stone tools are absent in the Ghaligai cave. This suggests that while there are resemblances in pottery, the presence of polished stone tools was a distinguishing feature of the Burzahom site.

Grave Sites in Swat Valley

• Numerous grave sites have been investigated in the Swat Valley, including Loe-banr, Aligrama, Birkot Ghundai, Kherari, Lal-batai, Timargarha, Balambat, Kalako-deray, and Zarif Karuna.
• Different types of burials have been identified, such as flexed burials, cremation, urn burials, fractional burials, and multiple burials.
• Loe-banr III and Aligrama provided evidence of ancient agriculture, including wheat, barley, rice, lentils, field peas, and a grape seed (Vitis vinifera).
• Remains of pit-dwellings with thatched roofs supported by wooden structures were discovered at Loe-banr III and Kalako-deray.
• Jade beads found at Loe-banr III suggest trade or exchange connections with Central Asia.

Surface Finds in Himachal Pradesh

• Surface finds of Neolithic tools such as axes, chisels, and ring stones have been reported from sites like Ror, Baroli, and Dehra Gopipur in the Kangra district of Himachal Pradesh.
• These tools were discovered alongside choppers and flake tools, although the dating of the Neolithic context in this region remains uncertain.

Rajasthan and Surrounding Areas

• In regions like Rajasthan, Malwa, and the northern Deccan, the onset of settled life is linked to a Chalcolithic phase rather than a Neolithic one.
• Bagor in eastern Rajasthan illustrates this transition from the Mesolithic phase of hunting and gathering to Chalcolithic and eventually Iron Age phases.
• Evidence of early sedentary Chalcolithic sites is more substantial in areas abundant with copper ores, such as Rajasthan, Gujarat, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Andhra Pradesh.
• The richest copper mines are located in Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Bihar, with evidence of copper use in parts of the subcontinent from around 3000 BCE onwards.

Archaeological Cultures and Pottery Types

• Protohistoric cultures are often named after the sites where they were first identified or after a distinctive pottery type found at these sites.
• For example, the Malwa culture is named after the region where it is concentrated, but sites associated with this culture are also found in Maharashtra.
• Similarly, Ahar culture sites, primarily located in southeast Rajasthan, are also present in Malwa.
• These archaeological cultures share a range of material remains, but what else they had in common is open to interpretation.

Chalcolithic Cultures of Rajasthan

Rajasthan is home to several ancient cultures known for their early use of copper and distinctive pottery. Two notable cultures are the Ganeshwar–Jodhpura culture in the north-eastern part and the Ahar culture in the south-eastern region.

• The Ganeshwar–Jodhpura culture thrived in the north-eastern part of Rajasthan, with over 80 identified sites, mainly in the Sikar district, and also in Jaipur and Jhunjhunu districts.
• This concentration of sites is linked to the nearby copper ore resources in the Baleshwar and Khetri areas, where evidence of ancient copper working has been found.

Jodhpura:

• Jodhpura, located on the banks of the Sahibi River, is where the Ganeshwar–Jodhpura culture was first identified.
• The typical pottery from this site is wheel-made, ranging from orange to red in color, with incised designs. Common shapes include dish-on-stand with thick slip.
• Calibrated dates from Jodhpura range between 3309–2709 BCE and 2879–2348 BCE.

Ganeshwar:

• Pottery similar to that of Jodhpura was later found at Ganeshwar, near Nim-ka-Thana.
• Ganeshwar has three cultural phases:
• Period I (c. 3800 BCE onwards): Characterized by a hunting-gathering community using microliths made of chert and quartz. Charred bones of wild animals were found, with a shift from small to larger animal bones over time.
• Period II (c. 2800 BCE): Marked the beginning of metallurgy, with the discovery of copper objects such as arrowheads, fishhooks, and spearheads. People lived in circular huts with pebble-paved floors, and both handmade and wheel-made pottery were present.
• Period III (c. 2000 BCE): Featured a wide range of pots and hundreds of copper objects, including arrowheads, spearheads, and bangles. There was a decline in microliths and animal bones during this period.

Copper Working and Trade:

• Despite the absence of direct evidence of copper smelting at Ganeshwar, such as furnaces and crucibles, the large number of copper objects suggests it was a copper-working center.
• The site likely supplied these items to other communities.
• There are similarities between the pottery of Ganeshwar Period II and early Harappan pottery, indicating potential trade or cultural exchange.
• Ganeshwar may have been a major supplier of copper to the mature Harappan culture.
• Harappan pottery and artifacts have been found at Ganeshwar sites, further suggesting cultural contact between the two civilizations.

Ahar Culture:

• The Ahar culture, located in the south-eastern part of Rajasthan, is associated with a significant process of metallurgical development that dates back to the 4th millennium BCE.
• Sites from this culture show evidence of early metalworking and distinct pottery styles, contributing to our understanding of ancient technological and cultural advancements in the region.

Ahar Culture in South-East Rajasthan

• Over 90 sites of the Ahar or Banas culture have been found in the Banas and Berach river systems in south-east Rajasthan, between Udaipur and Jaipur. Some sites are also present in the Malwa plateau of Madhya Pradesh. The three main sites that have been excavated are Ahar, Gilund, and Balathal.
• Ahar was excavated in 1953–54 and 1961–62, Gilund in 1959–60, and Balathal in 1994–98. The typical pottery from Ahar is a black-and-red ware with linear and dotted designs painted in white. Sites of the Ahar culture are usually found along river banks and range in size from a few hectares to over 10 hectares. 
• However, Ahar itself covers at least 11 hectares, and Gilund is about 10.5 hectares. Many sites are located within 8–17 km of each other.

Ahar Excavation Details

• Location and Periods: Ahar is situated on the outskirts of Udaipur and is divided into three phases: Ia, Ib, and Ic, with estimated dates of around 2500 BCE, 2100 BCE, and 1900 BCE, respectively.
• Housing: Houses were made of mud with stone foundations, strengthened by bamboo screens or quartz nodules. The roofs were likely sloping, and floors were made of black clay mixed with yellow silt, sometimes paved with riverbed gravel.
• House Remains: A partial house plan was found, indicating a house about 10.31 meters long, divided by a mud wall.
• Ovens and Artefacts: Multiple-mouthed ovens were discovered, along with various artefacts such as microliths, copper objects (rings, bangles, antimony rods, knife blade, socketless axes), saddle querns, beads (including semi-precious stones like lapis lazuli), and terracotta beads or spindle whorls.
• Copper Smelting: Evidence of local copper smelting was found through copper sheets and slag.
• Food Remains: Food remains included rice grains and animal bones from cow, buffalo, goat, sheep, deer, pig, fish, turtle, and fowl.