The Transition to Food Production: Neolithic– Chalcolithic, and Chalcolithic Villages - 1 | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

The Neolithic Age and the Beginnings of Food Production

• Domestication Process: The domestication of animals and plants was the result of a long series of collective experiments involving many generations of people over hundreds or even thousands of years. It was a gradual process that required critical choices and changes in food procurement strategies.
• Early Stages: Archaeological evidence captures a late stage in the domestication of animals and plants, indicating that the process was already well underway at that time. However, many details about how this transition occurred are still unknown.
• Transition from Hunting-Gathering to Domestication: Despite the missing details, it is possible to reconstruct various aspects of the transition from hunting-gathering to domestication in different parts of the world based on available evidence. This transition marked a significant achievement in human history and set the stage for the development of agriculture and settled societies.

Centres of Agriculture

The process of domestication involved a significant change in how humans interacted with nature, marking a new phase in the relationship between people, plants, and animals. 

• This process entailed taking plants and animals from their natural environments and selectively breeding and raising them under human control for human benefit. It is important to distinguish between plant collection and plant domestication, as well as between animal keeping and animal domestication.
• When all harvested grain is consumed, it represents a stage of food collection. However, if some grain is set aside after harvesting and intentionally planted later, this signifies plant domestication. Similarly, when certain animal species are captured and kept, it is a stage of animal keeping. Animal breeding or domestication occurs when wild animals are taken from their natural habitats and raised under human control for profit.
• There was a gradual shift from hunting and gathering to animal rearing and agriculture. The transition from simple foraging to complex foraging, involving intensive exploitation of wild plants, laid the groundwork for plant domestication. This progressed to early agriculture and eventually to developed agriculture. Over time, these shifts were linked to technological advancements, increased food availability, population growth, larger human settlements, and more complex social and political structures.
• A long period likely passed between the initial domestication of plants and animals in an area and the increased dependence of people on these resources for food. Societies could be distinguished based on the amount of food obtained through animal and plant domestication. Food-producing societies are those that meet at least half of their food needs for part of the year through domestication, where animals and plants are not bound to their natural habitats.
• The Neolithic Age marks a significant turning point in human history, characterized by advancements in stone tool technology and the transition to food production. During this period, people began making ground, pecked, and polished stone tools, reflecting a shift in subsistence strategies.
• Other notable developments of the Neolithic phase include the invention of pottery, increased sedentary living, the formation of small and relatively self-sufficient village communities, and a division of labor based on sex. V. Gordon Childe coined the term "Neolithic Revolution" to emphasize the profound impact of these changes. However, it is important to note that this revolution was gradual, occurring multiple times in different regions with varying features and outcomes.

Why Domestication?

After thousands of years of hunting and gathering, what prompted certain groups of people to start domesticating animals and plants? One of the earliest attempts to answer this question was made by V. Gordon Childe (1952), who suggested that environmental changes at the end of the Pleistocene were the catalyst for food production. 

• Childe argued that around 10,000 years ago, the climate in parts of West Asia became drier due to a northward shift of summer rains. This drying up led to a concentration of people, plants, and animals near water resources such as rivers and oases. This enforced proximity eventually fostered new relationships of dependence between humans, plants, and animals, resulting in domestication.
• However, Childe's theory was challenged by Robert J. Braidwood (1960), who disagreed with the emphasis on environmental change as the key factor leading to agriculture. Braidwood pointed out that environmental changes had also occurred during the Pleistocene without resulting in agriculture. He proposed that domestication occurred in specific nuclear zones rich in wild plants and animals with domestication potential. In these areas, domestication was a natural outcome of human experimentation and a deeper understanding of the environment.
• Braidwood's theory, however, did not adequately explain the pressures or incentives that might have driven domestication. There is ethnographic evidence of hunting-gathering communities with a deep knowledge of their environment and awareness of agriculture, yet they do not see the need to adopt it. There must be compelling reasons for a community to drastically change its way of life.
• Braidwood's theory was further critiqued by Lewis R. Binford (1968), who argued that it lacked archaeological testability and that specific, concrete factors could explain the beginnings of agriculture. Binford suggested that in stable environments with a balance between human population and food resources, communities do not seek new food sources or strategies. Such groups tend to live below the resource potential of their environment.
• Binford identified two types of demographic stress that could disrupt the balance between people and food: internal demographic stress (increase in community population) and external demographic stress (immigration into an area by people from another area)

Binford's View on Agriculture Origins

• Binford believed that demographic stress was a key factor in the origin of agriculture. He suggested that at the end of the Pleistocene, rising sea levels forced coastal populations to migrate inland, disrupting the balance between people and food in those areas.
• This disruption, according to Binford, triggered the need for new strategies to increase food supplies.
• However, there is a lack of evidence to support the idea of mass migration from coastal areas to inland regions at the end of the Pleistocene.
• While internal demographic stress might have played a role in some areas, it raises the question of whether we can truly speak of 'overpopulation' and 'food crisis' during times when human communities were small and resources were abundant.

Kent Flannery's Perspective

• In 1969, Kent Flannery shifted the focus from searching for a specific event that led to the beginnings of food production to examining the process of food production itself.
• He emphasized the adaptive advantages of plant and animal domestication over foraging and hunting. Flannery distinguished between two types of food procurement systems: negative and positive feedback systems.
• Negative Feedback Systems : These systems involve a balanced exploitation and use of various food resources within an area, discouraging any change.
• Positive Feedback Systems : In these systems, the productivity of resources actually increases as a result of human interference and exploitation.
• For example, when people transplanted maize from its natural habitat to other areas, the plants responded to domestication with changes such as increased cob size and grain number.
• Genetic changes from cross-fertilization enhanced maize productivity, leading people to focus more on its domestication.
• While Flannery's hypothesis explains why agriculture became more advantageous than food gathering, it does not clarify why initial experiments in domestication were undertaken in the first place.

Environmental Change and Early Agriculture

• Recent studies suggest that environmental change, particularly the onset of a milder, warmer, and wetter climate during the Holocene, played a crucial role in the development of early agriculture. 
• The extinction of big game in Europe was not a significant factor in regions of early agriculture like West Asia, where animals such as gazelles, wild cattle, onagers, deer, and wild goats remained important sources of meat. The changing climate may have expanded the natural habitat of wild cereals, contributing to the shift towards agriculture.
• Origins of Domestication: The process of domestication for animals and plants was likely a slow and gradual one, and it might have varied in pace and detail across different regions. The evidence we have is limited, and it’s possible that we may never fully understand the specifics or the motivations behind domestication. Additionally, archaeological findings often lack concrete information about the social and political factors that could have played a significant role in these complex cultural processes.
• Different Factors in Different Regions: Instead of pinpointing a single cause for the origins of domestication, it’s more important to track how the process unfolded in various regions. Given the differences in ecology and resources among the early centers of plant and animal domestication, it’s likely that different factors were at play in different parts of the world.

Identifying Domestication and Food Production in Archaeology

Domestication of Animals

• Over time, domestication causes specific changes in the form of animals.
• Early domesticated animals are usually smaller than their wild relatives.
• As conditions improve, such as better feeding and breeding, their size can increase.
• Other changes include:
• Shortening of the face relative to the skull.
• Alterations in dental structure, like smaller teeth and the possible loss of certain teeth.
• Reduction in the size of horns.
• Changes in hair length and coloration.
• Domesticated cattle show weak muscle ridges and poorly defined joint facets, while draught animals may exhibit strengthened muscles.

Early Stages of Domestication

• Morphological changes indicative of domestication take a long time to manifest. For instance, it took thousands of years for horses to show such changes, while cattle, goats, and sheep exhibited them more quickly.
• Once these changes are evident, scientists can analyze animal bones and teeth from archaeological sites to determine whether an animal was wild or domesticated.
• The presence of wild or transitional forms at a site can aid in identifying domesticated varieties.

Other Indicators of Domestication

• Animals found outside their natural habitats, such as mountain goats in the plains, suggest domestication.
• Age and sex ratios in faunal assemblages provide clues, as domesticated animals have different male-female ratios compared to wild ones.

Domestication of Plants

• Over time, domesticated plants undergo morphological changes, such as smaller grain sizes in domesticated wheat and barley.
• Wild varieties have brittle ears and fragile spikes, while domesticated varieties have stronger ears that break apart during threshing.
• However, root crops like potatoes and yams are less likely to be recognized in the archaeological record due to their lack of hard parts and asexual reproduction, which leads to less genetic change during domestication.

Evidence of Plant and Animal Domestication

Direct Evidence

• Grains and Seeds: Analysis of carbonized grains or seeds found at archaeological sites can provide direct evidence of plant domestication. Carbonization occurs when these materials come into contact with fire.
• Impressions: Impressions of grain or husk on clay or pottery fragments can also indicate domestication.

Indirect Evidence

• Art Remains: Depictions of people capturing or tending animals, harvesting grain, or processing food in art remains can suggest domestication, but they are not conclusive. For example, capturing animals could indicate hunting, while harvesting grain could be compatible with food collection.
• Artefacts and Tools: Tools such as grinding stones and sickles are sometimes considered indicative of plant domestication. However, grinding stones could be used for grinding wild grain, and sickles could be used for reaping wild plants.
• Natural Science Evidence: Analysis of pollen grains, molluscs, insect remains, and other natural science data can indicate changes in land use and indirectly suggest the presence or absence of agriculture.
• Food-Producing Status: Determining the food-producing status of a community is challenging and subjective. Some sites provide clear evidence of animal and/or plant domestication in the subsistence base, while others lack sufficient evidence for assessment.
• Neolithic Sites in the Indian Subcontinent: Many sites in the Indian subcontinent are labeled as ‘neolithic’ primarily based on the presence of ground and polished stone tools, without definitive evidence of domestication.

Study of Ancient Plant Remains

The study of ancient plant remains, known as palaeobotany or archaeobotany, involves examining botanical remnants from historical sites. These remains can be categorized into macro-botanical and micro-botanical evidence.

Macro-Botanical Remains

• Macro-botanical remains, such as seeds and grains, can be preserved through desiccation, waterlogging, or charring.
• While these remains can be collected manually during excavations, this method risks damaging them and missing smaller fragments. A more effective approach is the flotation technique.

Flotation Technique

• The flotation technique involves pouring dried carbonized plant material along with its soil matrix into a liquid medium, such as water.
• In this process, the inorganic material sinks to the bottom, while the carbonized seeds float to the surface, making them easier to retrieve.
• Once collected, these seeds are analyzed under microscopes to identify the plant types and determine whether they were wild or domesticated.

Micro-Botanical Remains

• Micro-botanical remains, such as phytoliths and plant parenchyma, can provide insights into the differentiation between wild and domesticated plant species.
• Phytoliths are tiny silica particles found in specific parts of a plant, and their recovery from a site can aid in this differentiation.
• Similarly, the analysis of plant parenchyma, which consists of roundish, thin-walled cells in a plant stem or fruit pulp, can serve a similar purpose.

Palynology

• Palynology, the study of pollen and spores, is another crucial technique in analyzing ancient plant remains.
• Pollen, the reproductive bodies of flowering plants, can survive for thousands of years due to their robust outer shell. By examining pollen grains under microscopes, scientists can identify the plant species they originate from.
• Changes in pollen profiles across different archaeological layers can indicate climatic shifts, forest clearance, or agricultural practices.

Advanced Techniques

• Recent advancements, such as accelerator mass spectrometric (AMS) dating of squash seeds and maize cobs and DNA studies to analyze plant genotypes, are still primarily used in the West.
• These techniques can establish links between domesticated and wild plant species and identify the regions where wild progenitors of domesticated species were originally found.

The Transition to Food Production in the Indian Subcontinent

The neolithic age is commonly linked with food production, pottery, and settled living. However, the situation is more intricate in the Indian subcontinent. Some aspects associated with the neolithic period actually have their origins in the earlier mesolithic phase. For instance, there is evidence of pottery and animal domestication at certain mesolithic sites. Conversely, there are neolithic sites that lack pottery.

• Sedentism, or settled living, is also a complicated issue. Some mesolithic hunter-gatherer communities were quite sedentary, while some groups practicing animal or plant domestication were not very settled. Instead of viewing sedentary and nomadic lifestyles as opposites, it is important to recognize the different degrees of sedentism in various communities.
• The shift to animal and plant domestication did not signify the end of hunting and gathering. Communities engaged in animal rearing and agriculture often continued to hunt and forage for food. Additionally, there were many communities that maintained their hunting-gathering lifestyle and never transitioned to domestication. However, this chapter focuses on those communities that did make the transition.
• Given the vast ecological diversity in the subcontinent—particularly in terms of climate, soil, and the availability of plant and animal species suitable for domestication—it is not surprising that early pastoralists and agriculturists adapted in various ways.
• The chapter emphasizes the beginnings of food production rather than the neolithic per se because food production is the most significant aspect of the neolithic phase. Furthermore, the history of early food-producing settlements in the subcontinent features different regional profiles and trajectories. In some regions, like the northern fringes of the Vindhyas, food-producing neolithic culture evolved from an earlier mesolithic phase. In other areas, such as the north-west, there is no evidence of a mesolithic phase, and the earliest settlements appear to be those of neolithic agriculturists and pastoralists.
• While there are 'pure neolithic' sites, many more neolithic–chalcolithic cultures exhibit elements of the neolithic alongside the use of metal, primarily copper. In certain parts of the subcontinent, like Rajasthan, there is currently little evidence of a neolithic or neolithic–chalcolithic stage, and the earliest sedentary communities seem to appear in a fully developed chalcolithic context.
• To effectively convey the intricate and diverse cultural landscape over a vast period, the discussion on food-producing agricultural–pastoral communities in the subcontinent is divided into three overlapping phases:
  • Phase I—c. 7000–3000 BCE
  • Phase II—c. 3000–2000 BCE
  • Phase III—c. 2000–1000 BCE onwards
• The first two phases are elaborated in this chapter, while Phase III will be addressed in Chapter 5. For sites with a prolonged cultural sequence, only the earliest phases within the first two chronological phases are discussed here; the later phases will be covered in Chapter 5.
• The various geographical zones of early food-producing communities are examined in terms of their chronology, general features, and specific traits, set against the backdrop of the cultural sequence of each area.

The Earliest Village Settlements in the Indian Subcontinent, c. 7000–3000 BCE

The North-West

• Sites in Baluchistan demonstrate the transition from a semi-nomadic pastoral lifestyle to settled agriculture. The most ancient and well-documented evidence comes from Mehrgarh, situated in the Bolan valley within the northern Kachi plain. This site lies near the point where the river flows out of the hills through the Bolan pass. The Bolan valley historically served as a crucial link between the Indus plains and the mountainous regions of north Baluchistan, facilitating the movement of people and animals from early times.
• Excavations at Mehrgarh uncovered remnants of ancient settlements spread over approximately 200 hectares on a low mound and the adjacent plain. Researchers identified seven occupational levels, providing compelling evidence of continuous habitation along with cultural continuity and change over millennia. The first six levels, referred to as Periods I to VI, are particularly relevant to our discussion.
• Periods I and II at Mehrgarh are classified as Neolithic, despite the presence of a small amount of copper. The remains from Period I, further divided into Periods IA and IB, were found in an 11-meter-thick deposit at the northern end of the site, on the elevated bank of the Bolan river. The dating of this phase is somewhat problematic due to inconsistent radiocarbon results, with most dates ranging between 6000 and 5500 BP (approximately 5000 BCE, calibrated). The challenge lies in the fact that while Period I appears to be earlier, the evidence from the site is not entirely conclusive.
• Radiocarbon dates for the middle levels of Period IA at Mehrgarh typically range from 5800 to 5530 BP. However, there are also some earlier radiocarbon dates, such as 9385 ± 120 BP for Period IA, 7115 ± 120 BP for Period IIB, and 6500 ± 80 BP for Period III. These earlier dates help establish a coherent chronological framework for the Mehrgarh neolithic sequence from the 8th to 6th millennia BCE.

Houses and Structures

• Period I: People lived in houses made of handmade mud-bricks with small, rectangular rooms. Some structures may have served as granaries. 
• Period IA: A room measuring 2 × 1.8 m had reed impressions on the floor and a grinding stone. 
• Bricks: Walls were made of standardized bricks with rounded ends and finger impressions on the upper surface.

Tools and Artifacts

• Stone Tools: Thousands of microliths based on blades, along with a few ground neolithic handaxes (celts). Some blades were set into wooden handles with bitumen, possibly used as sickles for harvesting grain. 
• Grinding Stones: Indicate food processing activities. 
• Other Stone Objects: Vessels, perforated discs, and spatulae with criss-cross designs. 
• Bone Tools: Needles and awls made from bone. 
• Figurines: A handmade clay female figurine was found. 
• Pottery: Mehrgarh I was mostly a-ceramic, with the first pottery appearing in Period IB.

Burials and Grave Goods

• Burial Practices: Dead bodies were buried in oval pits in a flexed position, often covered with red ochre. Young goats were placed near the feet in some burials. 
• Grave Goods: Included bitumen-lined baskets, food offerings, and ornaments such as necklaces made of stone or shell beads, bone pendants, and anklets. A copper bead was found in one burial. 
• Exotic Items: Turquoise and lapis lazuli beads were discovered, indicating long-distance exchange. Lapis lazuli may have come from the Chagai hills in north Baluchistan or Afghanistan, while turquoise could have originated from eastern Iran or central Asia. Marine shells, sourced from the Makran coast about 500 km away, were also found in graves.

Period I: Burials and Grave Goods

• A graveyard with 150 burials was discovered, covering over 220 square meters.
• The burials were more elaborate than in earlier periods.
• In some cases, a small niche was cut into the side of a pit, and the body along with grave goods was placed inside.
• The niche was then sealed with a mud-brick wall, and the pit was filled.
• Copper beads were found in some burials.
• There were instances of double burials and secondary burials, where bones were collected and reburied after exposure to the elements.
• The significance of these changes in burial practices is not clear.

Period II: Settlement Expansion and Craft Activities

Period II A (c. 6000–4500 BCE)

• The settlement at Mehrgarh expanded, with the construction of mud-brick structures divided into small compartments.
• Some compartments were likely used for storage, as indicated by the discovery of barley seeds in rooms that may have stored grain.
• Stone and bone tool types from Period I continued to be used.
• Two sickles made of microliths hafted onto a bitumen matrix were found.
• Microwear studies of stone tools from Period IIA suggest they were used for processing animal products, including butchery, cooking, hide processing, and making bone artifacts.
• Handmade pottery was present in the early part of Period II, while wheel-made pottery appeared in Period IIC.
• In Period IIB, a copper ring, bead, and a small ingot of copper were discovered.
• Other finds from Period II included an ivory tusk, pieces of red ochre, grinding stones, and a small unbaked clay figurine of a male torso.
• Two flexed burials with bodies covered in red ochre and no grave goods were also found.

Period II B

• Time Frame: c. 6000–4500 BCE.
• Settlement Size: The settlement at Mehrgarh continued to grow during this period.
• Architectural Developments: Numerous mud-brick structures were constructed, featuring small cell-like compartments. Some of these structures were likely used for storage, while others may have served as residences.
• Storage Facilities: Evidence of storage facilities, such as double rows of small rooms with a central passage and barley seeds found on the floors, suggests the storage of grain.
• Tools and Craftsmanship: The types of stone and bone tools used in Period I continued to be utilized. Notably, two sickles made of microliths hafted onto a bitumen matrix were discovered.
• Microwear Analysis: P. Vaughan's study of stone tools from Period IIA indicates their association with activities related to animal products, including butchery, cooking, hide processing, and the production of bone artifacts.
• Pottery: Handmade pottery was found in the early part of Period II, while wheel-made pottery emerged in Period IIC.
• Notable Finds: Period II witnessed the discovery of various items, including a copper ring, beads, a small ingot of copper, an ivory tusk, pieces of red ochre, grinding stones, and a small unbaked clay figurine depicting a male torso.
• Burial Practices: Two flexed burials were identified, where the bodies were covered with red ochre and lacked grave goods.

Period II C

• Time Frame: Second half of the 5th millennium BCE.
• Craft Activities: There was a notable increase in craft activities, particularly in the large-scale production of wheel-made pottery with painted decorations. Innovations and refinements in pottery-making techniques were evident.
• Pottery-Manufacturing Area: A pottery-manufacturing area was discovered, featuring the bases of three ovens situated atop an accumulation of six meters of pottery debris.
• Bead Making: The frequent occurrence of ornaments such as necklaces and bracelets made from tiny steatite beads indicated that bead making was a significant craft. Beads made from semi-precious stones like lapis lazuli, turquoise, and agate, as well as beads made from terracotta and shell, were also found. Stone micro-drills may have been used to create engravings on shell.
• Terracotta Figurines: A few terracotta humped bulls were discovered.
• Metallurgy: The presence of terracotta crucibles with traces of copper suggested the early stages of metallurgy in the region.

Period III: Storage, Burial Practices, and Subsistence Activities

Storage Complexes and Burial Practices

• Storage complexes in Period III were similar to those in earlier phases, featuring compartments.
• A significant cemetery from this period containing the burials of around 99 individuals shows notable changes in burial practices.
• The niches, previously seen in Period II and made with cigar-shaped bricks, were absent in this cemetery.
• Some skeletons had their heads placed on bricks, indicating a shift in burial customs.
• One grave contained a collective burial with two wheel-made painted pots, which were not found in any other burials.
• In another burial, a copper or bronze object resembling a fragment of a segmented seal was discovered near the skull.
• Ornaments, primarily made of steatite micro-beads, were commonly found among the grave goods.
• Other ornaments included pendants made of lapis lazuli, carnelian, turquoise, chrysoprase, agate, terracotta, and seashells.

Transition in Subsistence Activities

• Periods I–III provide the earliest and most detailed evidence of subsistence activities in the region, illustrating the transition from hunting and gathering to a strong dependence on animal domestication and agriculture.
• Excavations at Mehrgarh uncovered thousands of plant specimens, including charred grains, seeds, and impressions of grain on mud-brick. Barley emerged as the most crucial crop during this period.
• In Period I, the dominant type of barley was six-row naked barley (  Hordeum vulgare nudum  ). Other varieties included hulled six-row barley (  Hordeum vulgare vulgare  ) and wild and domesticated hulled two-row barley (  Hordeum vulgare spontaneum  and  Hordeum vulgare distichum  ).
• The presence of wild, transitional, and domesticated varieties of barley at the site indicates that north Baluchistan was within the natural habitat zone of wild barley and that Mehrgarh was part of a larger area of barley domestication.

Agriculture and Domestication in Mehrgarh

Early Agriculture: Mehrgarh, Period I:

• Barley and Wheat: Grains of domesticated hulled barley (Hordeum vulgare) and different types of wheat, including einkorn (Triticum monococcum), emmer (Triticum diococcum), and naked wheat (Triticum durum), were found.
• Domestication: Although there is no clear evidence of wild wheat in Mehrgarh, the people were actively domesticating this cereal.
• Other Crops: Seeds of ber (Zizyphus jujube) and dates (Phoenix dactylifera) were also present.

Mehrgarh, Period II:

• Continuity and Diversification: There was continuity with Period I crops, but also the introduction of new varieties and crops.
• New Varieties: Two new varieties of wheat (Triticum aestivum compactum and Triticum aestivum sphaerococcum ) and a new variety of barley (Hordeum hexastichum ) were identified.
• Introduction of Oats: Oats (Avena sp.) were introduced as a new cereal.
• Shift in Importance: Wheat became more important than barley during this period.

Mehrgarh, Period III:

• Continuity: Continued cultivation of earlier crops such as barley and wheat.
• New Additions: Introduction of new varieties of wheat and barley, along with the cultivation of oats.
• Shift in Dominance: Wheat became the dominant crop, surpassing barley in importance.
• Cultivation Practices:Early Methods: Not much is known about the specific methods of cultivation, but it is believed that farmers relied on winter rains and may have used mud or stone embankments to channel water into fields, similar to modern gabarbands.
• Harvesting: Stone sickles, made by hafting tiny microliths onto wooden handles with bitumen, were likely used for harvesting grain.

Transition to Animal Domestication:

• Period I:Wild Animals: Bones of wild animals such as deer (gazelle, blackbuck, sambar, chital), nilgai, goat, onager (wild ass), water buffalo, cattle, pig, and possibly elephant were predominant.
• Early Domestication: Evidence of domesticated goats, with decreasing sizes of sheep and cattle indicating early domestication.

Period II:

• Increased Domestication: By the end of Period I, there was a significant increase in the bones of domesticated cattle, goats, and sheep, with cattle becoming the most important domesticated animal.
• Period III: Continued dominance of cattle, with an increase in sheep and goat bones. Interestingly, there was also a resurgence in hunting activity, as indicated by an increase in wild animal bones.

Dental Health and Diet: Study by J. R. Lukacs (1985):

• Dental Caries: Early levels showed a low rate of dental caries, possibly due to high fluoride levels in the drinking water.
• Coarse Diet: Features of the teeth suggest a coarse diet, with evidence of tooth probing.

Period III Decline: Dental health declined, possibly due to changes in food habits, such as the consumption of more refined foods.

Period IV

• Settlement Expansion and Structure: The settlement continued to expand, with larger structures featuring rooms divided by wide walls. Doors were equipped with wooden lintels, indicating improved construction techniques.
• Discovery of a Unique Room: One particular door, measuring only 1.10 meters in height, led into a room filled with various artifacts, including stone tools, grinding stones, pestles, and animal bones. This suggests a busy and diverse domestic life.
• Pottery and Decorative Items: The pottery from this period included polychrome wares and featured intricate designs. Notable finds included a storage jar, a basin with decorative ridges and snake patterns, fine goblets, and beautifully painted vessels.
• Figurines: A new style of terracotta female figurines emerged during this period, characterized by a tubular body, pinched nose, and joined legs, indicating a shift in artistic expression.

Period V

• Continuity in Pottery Designs: There were continuities in pottery designs between Periods IV and V, suggesting a stable tradition.

Period VI

• Introduction of New Pottery Styles: This period saw the introduction of red ware decorated with pipal leaves and well-fired grey ware, indicating advancements in pottery techniques.
• Increased Interaction: The emergence of similar pottery styles across various parts of Baluchistan suggests an increase in cultural interaction and exchange during this period.
• Pottery Kiln Discovery: A large pottery kiln was discovered, highlighting the production capabilities and the significance of pottery in the settlement.
• Terracotta Figurines: Distinctive terracotta female figurines with elaborate hairstyles, heavy breasts, and joined legs became prominent, possibly indicating a cultic significance or religious practices.
• Unexplored Sites: Several large mounds in the Kachi plain may represent unexplored sites contemporary to the later periods of Mehrgarh, suggesting that the region was more extensively populated and utilized than previously understood.

Kile Gul Mohammad

Early Settlement and Transition (Period I)

• Initially, the people of Kile Gul Mohammad were likely nomadic pastoralists. However, by the end of Period I, they had transitioned to living in houses constructed from mud or wattle-and-daub, which involves interlacing rods and twigs plastered with mud.
• The artefacts from this period included microliths and blades made from chert, jasper, and chalcedony. There were also a few ground tools and bone points.

Pottery Developments (KGM II and KGM III)

• During KGM II, handmade and basket-marked pottery emerged. By KGM III, wheel-made pottery became common, including fine black-on-red ware featuring geometric designs.
• Remains of mud-brick houses, some with stone foundations, were discovered, indicating advancements in construction. The first copper objects appeared in Period III, marking a significant development in material culture.

Kile Gul Mohammad IV and Damb Sadaat I

• The uppermost level of Kile Gul Mohammad (KGM IV) was contemporary with the first period of occupation at Damb Sadaat (DS I). Both sites exhibited similar cultural remains, including a distinctive type of pottery known as Kechi Beg Ware.
• Kechi Beg Ware : This pottery was well-fired, thin, and buff-coloured, featuring geometric designs painted in black or red. Common shapes included deep vases, bowls, and jars.

Damb Sadaat Period II (c. 3000 BCE)

• Multi-roomed mud-brick structures with limestone block foundations were prevalent. Houses contained hearths resembling modern tandoors for cooking.
• Pottery Types: Quetta ware, characterized by buff-coloured pottery with black designs, included jars, bowls, and pedestaled jars. Faiz Mohammad Grey Ware, represented by shallow plates and deep bowls, featured geometric and naturalistic designs.
• Terracotta Objects: Figurines of cattle and females, small models of houses, rattles, and seals were found. A copper/bronze blade, bone spatula, and alabaster vessel were also associated with this period.

Excavations in the Kalat Plateau

• Anjira and Siah Damb, excavated by Beatrice de Cardi, revealed five periods of occupation. The earliest period was contemporaneous with Period II at Kile Gul Mohammad.
• Period I in the Kalat plateau indicated a semi-nomadic settlement with no structural traces. Pottery included fine wheel-made buff ware and chert blades.
• In Period II, mud structures on stone boulder foundations emerged, with pottery including red-slipped and burnished grey wares.
• Period III saw the development of houses with rough square stone blocks and the introduction of Togau ware, featuring red pottery with black designs of ibexes, birds, and goats. Zari ware with white and black painted designs also emerged.
• Period IV involved dressing stone into square blocks for house construction and pottery similar to that found at Nal. Period V of the Kalat sites correlated with Damb Sadaat III, indicating continued cultural development.

Early Settlements and Developments in Mundigak

Mundigak, situated on a now-dry tributary of the Arghandab river in southeastern Afghanistan, was excavated by J. M. Casal in the 1950s and 1960s. The findings were categorized into different periods, with Period I dating back to around 4000–3500 BCE. Early settlers were likely semi-nomadic, as no structures were discovered in the initial levels of Period I.

Period I:

• Phase 4: Introduction of small oblong cells with walls made of pressed earth.
• Phase 5: Construction of larger houses with square or oblong rooms made of sun-dried bricks.
• Pottery: Predominantly wheel-made, found throughout Period I.
• Tools and Ornaments: Bone awls, alabaster vases, stone blades, and beads made from stone, lapis lazuli, and frit.
• Copper Objects: Included a needle and a small bent blade.
• Figurines: A terracotta figurine of a humped bull discovered in phase 3.

Period II: Evidence of domesticated animals such as cattle, sheep, and goats, along with plant remains like club wheat and ber.

Early Village Sites in Baluchistan

Explorations in the Zhob–Loralai region of Baluchistan have uncovered numerous early village sites along the plains of the Gomal, Zhob, Anambar, and Thal rivers. Notable sites include Sur Jangal, Dabar Kot, and Rana Ghundai, particularly in the Anambar valley. The inhabitants of these sites likely practiced some form of irrigation to sustain themselves.

Sur Jangal:

• Early occupation appears to be contemporaneous with Kile Gul Mohammad IV.
• Residents lived in small mud houses, with a significant emphasis on cattle rearing as indicated by the large quantity of cattle bones found.
• Pottery discovered at the site often featured painted designs of humped and humpless cattle.
• Terracotta items included small models of houses and goggle-eyed female figurines, thought to have cultic significance and labeled as ‘Zhob mother goddess’ figurines.

Rana Ghundai:

• Excavated in the 1930s and re-investigated in the 1950s, five occupational levels were identified at the site.
• Period I: Dating between c. 4500–4300 BCE, indicating a settlement of a semi-nomadic community with traces of living surfaces and hearths but lacking well-defined structural remains. Pottery was predominantly handmade and plain, along with bones of domesticated animals and microlithic tools.
• Period II: Characterized by wheel-made pottery with decorative friezes of stylized humped bulls and blackbuck, with typical pottery forms including bowls or cups with wide shoulders.
• Period III: Introduced changes in the style of painted pottery.