Themes in Early Indian Cultural History: Languages and Texts | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Development of Sanskrit Literature and Linguistics

Introduction to Sanskrit:

• Sanskrit is the most ancient language in India and is considered a remote cousin of many European languages.
• For example,Sanskrit words like pitr meaning "father" and matr meaning "mother" show similarities with words in other languages.

Vedic Sanskrit:

• The earliest form of Sanskrit,Vedic Sanskrit,is found in the Rig Veda.
• This form of Sanskrit has many similarities with Indo-European languages.

Development of Sanskrit:

• After the Rig Veda,Sanskrit evolved significantly.
• Old words became obsolete or changed in meaning, and new words, mostly borrowed from non-Aryan sources, were introduced.

Preservation of Vedic Texts:

• To preserve the purity of the Vedas,India developed the science of phonetics and grammar.
• The oldest linguistic text,Yaska’s Nirukta,dates back to the 5th century B.C. and explains obsolete Vedic words.

Panini and Sanskrit Grammar:

• The development of Sanskrit grammar was significantly advanced by Pāṇini around 400 B.C..
• His work,Ashtadhyayi,is the oldest book on Sanskrit grammar and provided a new direction for the language.
• Pāṇini's grammar stabilized Sanskrit, presupposing the efforts of earlier grammarians.

Panini's Impact on Sanskrit:

• Pāṇini's work marked the near completion of Sanskrit's classical form, with further development mainly in vocabulary.
• His system, though terse and challenging, is considered one of the greatest achievements of ancient civilization.

Influence of Panini's Grammar:

• Many later Indian grammarians focused on commenting and elaborating on Pāṇini's work.
• For example,Mahābhāṣya by Patanjali in the 2nd century B.C.

Classical Sanskrit

• From Pāṇini's time onward,Sanskrit was regarded as "perfected" or "refined."
• The Sakas of Ujjain were the first dynasty to use Sanskrit extensively.

Literary Flourishing

• During the Gupta period,Sanskrit literature reached new heights with refined forms and ornate styles.
• Prominent literary figures included Kalidasa,whose works exemplified classical trends.

Religious Texts

• Major texts such as the Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas,and Dharmasutras were composed in Sanskrit.
• Buddhist literature in Sanskrit included significant works from both the Mahayana and Hinayana schools.

Phases of Sanskrit Development

• The Vedic literature marks the beginning phase of Sanskrit development.
• The second phase, known as the Sutra period,spanned from 600 BC to 200 BC.
• The third phase, characterized by chaste Sanskrit literature, extended from 200 BC to 300 AD.
• Notable works from this period include those by the playwright Ashwaghosha.
• During the Gupta period,Sanskrit literature achieved its zenith with the creation of pure literature, including epic and semi-epic poetry.
• Variation in literary works and the development of plays, particularly comedies, were significant aspects of this period.
• Prominent authors included Kalidasa, Shudraka,and Vishakhadata.

Sanskrit's Pan-Indian Presence

• Sanskrit transcended regional boundaries, influencing and being influenced by various parts of India.

Development of Prakrit Language

• During the Vedic period,ordinary Aryan tribesmen spoke a simpler language similar to classical Sanskrit.
• By the time of the Buddha, the masses spoke Prakrit,a simpler and more accessible language associated with common people.
• Prakrit was not a single language but a group of languages with a complex relationship to Sanskrit.
• The everyday speech of ancient India has been preserved through unorthodox religious texts, which were composed in languages close to the spoken vernacular.
• The period of development for Prakrit literature ranges from 500 BC to 800 AD.
• Most pre-Guptan inscriptions, including the Ashokan edicts, were written in Prakrit.
• In Sanskrit dramas, women and lower-caste characters often spoke in Prakrit.
• Prakrit literature was primarily developed by Jainas,with significant contributions from the Maharashtrian and Shourseni branches.
• Key literary works in Prakrit include Gathasaptasati by Hala and Parishishtparvan by Hemachandra.
• Grammatical works like Prakrit Prakasha by Vasaruchi and Prakrit Lakshana by Chandra were also important in the development of Prakrit.
• Sanskrit literature from this period is characterized by moralistic and ethical themes, as seen in works like Setubandha by Pravarsena and Gaudvaho by Vakapati.

Development of Pali Language

• Pali, an early form of Prakrit, became significant as the language of the Theravadin Buddhists.
• Pali literature, including the Tripitakas,was formally recognized and developed within the Theravadin sect.
• Buddha spoke in Magadhi,which was also the official language of the Mauryan court.
• Some scholars suggest that Magadhi Prakrit is an early form of Pali, as the Theravada commentaries refer to Pali as the "language of Magadha."
• Pali was associated with common people, and its literature flourished from 500 BC to 700-800 AD.
• One notable work of Pali literature is Milindpanho,written between 200 BC and 300 AD,notable for its conversational style and literary quality.
• The poetic form of Pali developed significantly, sometimes surpassing its prose counterpart.
• Over time, Pali grammar also underwent some development.

Later Language Developments

• Later, a hybrid form of Magadhi,influenced by Western Prakrits, known as Ardha-magadhi,became the sacred language of the Jains, leading to a vast literature in this language.
• Another stage in the development of Indo-Aryan languages was Apabhramsa,a vernacular of Western India that gained literary significance in the medieval period and was used by Jaina writers in poetry.
• A similar degenerate form of Prakrit was employed in Bengali by a few late Buddhist poets and is considered the ancestor of modern Bengali.

Development of Dravidian Languages

• The Dravidian languages,including Tamil, Canarese, Telugu,and Malayalam,have been thriving for centuries, each with distinct scripts and written literatures.
• Tamil is spoken in the south, from Cape Comorin to Madras.
• Canarese is spoken in Mysore and parts of Andhra Pradesh.
• Telugu is spoken from Madras northwards to the borders of Orissa.
• Malayalam is spoken in Kerala.
• Tamil is considered the oldest of these languages, with a literature dating back to the early centuries A.D.
• Some scholars suggest a remote affiliation of Dravidian languages with the Finno-Ugrian group, which includes Finnish and Hungarian,though this hypothesis is uncertain.
• Dravidian is largely an independent language group with a distinct character, differentiated from northern languages by its varied vowel sounds.
• Early Tamil literature had few Sanskrit loanwords, and those present were generally adapted to the Tamil phonetic system.
• Over time, Aryan influence led to an increased borrowing of words, especially during the Middle Ages.
• Canarese first appeared in inscriptions at the end of the 6th century, with its earliest surviving literature dating back to the 9th century.
• Telugu became a literary language in the 12th century and gained prominence under the Vijayanagara Empire,where it served as the court language.
• Malayalam,closely related to Tamil, emerged as a separate language by the 11th century.

Brahmanical Texts

Brahmanical texts are classified into two main categories: Shruti and Smriti.

Shruti:

• Shruti, meaning "that which is heard," refers to the most authoritative and ancient religious texts in Hinduism, believed to be revealed to sages by God.
• Shruti texts include the four Vedas and their embedded texts: Samhitas, Upanishads, Brahmanas, and Aranyakas.
• These texts are considered apauruṣeya, or not created by humans.

Smriti:

• Smriti, meaning "that which is remembered," consists of Hindu texts usually attributed to specific authors and written down, in contrast to Shruti texts, which were transmitted verbally.
• Smriti literature is vast and derivative, rooted in or inspired by Shruti.
• The Smriti corpus includes:
  • Vedangas (grammar, meter, phonetics, etymology, astronomy, and rituals)
  • Upavedas (applied knowledge, e.g., Āyurveda, Dhanurveda)
  • Itihasa (historical narratives), including the Mahābhārata and Rāmāyana
  • Texts on the four aims of human life: Dharma, Artha, Kāma, and Mokṣa
  • The Puranas (ancient stories)
  • Kavya (poetical literature)
  • Bhasyas (commentaries)
  • Sutras and shastras of various philosophical schools
  • Nibandhas (digests) covering various topics.

Shruti Literature (Vedic Texts):

• What is Veda?
• Vedas are called  sruti literature, distinguishing them from smṛti literature.
• Hindus consider the Vedas to be apauruseya, meaning impersonal and authorless, revealed by ancient sages after intense meditation.

Types of Vedic Texts There are four Vedas: Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, and Atharvaveda. Each Veda is divided into four major text types:

• Samhitas: Collections of hymns or mantras. For example, the Rigveda Samhita contains 1,028 hymns divided into 10 mandalas.
• Brahmanas: Prose commentaries on Samhitas, explaining sacrificial rituals and their significance.
• Aranyakas: Texts on rituals and their philosophical interpretations.
• Upanishads: Texts discussing meditation, philosophy, and spiritual knowledge. They are considered the culmination of Vedic thought.
• Significance of Vedas The Vedas are considered the foundation of Hindu philosophy and thought, addressing questions about the universe, life, and human existence. The concepts of Brahman (Ultimate Reality) and Atman (Soul, Self) are central to the Upanishads.
• Examples of Upanishads Some important Upanishads include the Brihadaranyaka, Chandogya, Aitareya, Kena, and Katha Upanishads.

Shruti Literature as a Historical Source:

• Positive Aspects: Shruti literature is the main source for understanding Vedic life and culture from 1500 BC to 600 BC. It provides insights into the social, economic, political, and religious life of the Vedic period. It also offers geographical information about North and North-west India, such as names of rivers and mountains.
• Limitations: Shruti literature has limitations as a historical source. It is religious literature, and religious ideas often overshadow historical facts. There are few references to historical events, and there is a problem in correlating evidence with archaeology. The exact meaning of words in these texts can be vague and ambiguous, and there are issues with dating, chronology, and authorship. The historical usefulness of these texts is limited to a particular region, mainly North-western India.

Various Smriti Literatures

Vedangas: Vedangas are six classes of sutras recognized as the limbs or extensions of the Vedas. They are essential for reading, understanding, and applying the Vedas. The Vedangas are:

• Shiksha: Deals with the pronunciation of Vedic mantras (phonetics).
• Nirukta: Concerns etymology, the origin and formation of Vedic words.
• Chhanda: Acquaints with the metrical formation of Vedic mantras, i.e., the arrangement of words in verses.
• Vyakarana: Concerned with grammar.
• Jyotisha: Deals with astrology.
• Kalpasutras: Ceremonial guides or didactic manuals on ritual practice.

Dharmasutras

Dharmasutras are the earliest law books of ancient times, written between 600-300 B.C. They prescribe norms for daily conduct and the consequences of violating these norms. Some of the major Dharmasutras include:

• Gautama Dharmasutras: The oldest and contains one-fourth of the total sutras on Rajdharma (royal duties).
• Apastamba Dharmasutras: The second oldest, covering one-tenth of the total sutras on Rajdharma, with a commentary by Hardatta known as Vijjvalavrtti.
• Baudhyana Dharmasutras: Chronologically later than Apastamba, covering one-eighth of the total sutras on Rajdharma.
• Vasistha Dharmasutras: About one-sixth of the total is on Rajdharma.
• Vishnu Dharmasutras: Professed to be a revelation by the Supreme being, with the Dharmasutras being the works of sages, and a commentary by Bharuchi.

Notes: Sutras are written in a condensed style, expressing ideas in very short statements.

Upaveda

Dharmashastras

Some significant Dharmashastras include:

• Manu Smriti: From the Post-Mauryan period, it discusses topics like the treatment of women, ashramas, and social issues like Niyoga and gambling.
• Yajnavalkya Smriti: More systematic and concise than Manu Smriti, addressing issues like Niyoga, gambling, and widow rights.
• Narada Smriti: Similar to Manusmriti but with distinct views on Niyoga and remarriage.
• Brahaspati Smriti: Focuses on law and justice, distinguishing between civil and criminal matters.

Philosophical Literature

Sankhya:

• Samkhya Sutra by Kapila
• Sankhya Karika by Iswar Krishna(also known as Vindhyavas) - 6th century AD
• Tatva Kumudi by Vachaspali– 9th century AD

Yoga:

• Yoga Sutra by Patanjali
• Yog Bhasya by Vyas(Earliest Commentary)
• Rajamartanda by Bhoj– 100 AD

Nyaya:

• Nyaya Sutra by Gautam
• Nyaya Bhasya(Earliest commentary)by Pakshila Swamin Vatsyayan– 4th century AD
• Nyaya praves by Dinnaga(A Buddhist) – Criticizes Vatsyayan
• Nyaya Vartika by Uddyotakar– A Pasupat – Supports Vatsyayan against Dinnaga
• Nyaya Bindu by Dharmakirti(A Buddhist) – Supports Dinnaga against Uddyotkar
• Tattva Chintamani– First on Modern Nyaya by Gangesa– 12th century AD
• Nyayavatara by Diwakar(A Jaina) – First systematic writing on Jaina logic

Vaiseshika:

• Vaiseshika Sutra by Kanada or Kanbhuk or Uluk or Kashyap
• Padarth Oharm Sangrah by Prashast pad– 5th century AD

Purva Mimamsa:

• Mimamsa Sutra by Jamini– 4th century BC
• Sabar Bhasya by Sabar Swami– 1st century AD
• (a) Slokavartıka, (b) Tantra Vartika, (c) Tuptika, (d) Brihattika, (e) Madhyama Tika by Kumaril Bhatt– 6th-7th century AD
• Vidhi Vivek & Bhawana Vivek by Mandan Misra
• (a) Sarvadarshansamgraha, (b) Jaiminiya – Nyaya – Mal Vistara by Madhav– Brother of Sayana
• Tattva bindu by Vachaspati Misra

Vedanta:

• Badaryan Wrote Brahmasutra or Vedant Sutra
• Gaudpad Mentor of Shankara First systematic commentary Agama Sastra&Gaudpadkarika
• Shankara Wrote Brahmasutra Bhasya
• Sri Harsa Wrote Khandana Khanda Khadya on Advaita
• Ramanuj Lived in 11th century Wrote Vedant Sar or Vedanta Samgraha or Vedant Dip
• Nimbarka Wrote Parijat Saurav– Commentary on Brahmasutra– Expounded Dvaita Dvaita
• Madhav or Anandtirtha or Purnaprajna Commentary on Brahmasutra Wrote Anuvyakhyan Expounded Dvaita
• Mandan Misra Wrote Brahma Siddhi
• Vallabha Wrote Anubhasya On Brahmasutra Expounded Suddha Advaita

Purana:

• The word Purana literally means “ancient, old” (‘story of the old days’), and it is a vast genre of Indian literature about a wide range of topics, particularly legends and other traditional lore.
• The Purana emerged out of Bardic traditions. I.e. The original authors of the Puranas like those of the epics, were the Sutas or the bards.
• Bards were professional class used to recite the ancient lores.
• In almost all the Puranas the Suta Lomaharshana or his son Ugrasrava appears as narrator.
• Composed primarily in Sanskrit, but also in Tamil and other Indian languages, several of these texts are named after major Hindu deities such as Vishnu, Shiva, Brahma and Shakti.
• Although we cannot date puranas by its character of repeating the stories of the old days, one can trace their composition from 300 CE to 1000 CE. The earliest Puranas were compiled in the Gupta period.
• There are eighteen Puranas and about the same number of Upapuranas. Some of the well-known Puranas are – Brahma, Bhagvat, Padma, Vishnu, Vayu, Agni, Matsya and Garuda.
• Vishnu, Narada, Bhagvata, Garuda, Padma & Varaha Puranas are vaisvainite.
• Matsya, Kurma, Linga, siva, Skanda and Agni Puranas are saivite.
• One Brahma Purana is also known as Adi Purana for it is first in chronology.
• Bhagvata Purana is the most popular– a work of 9th century – contains 12 books – Book X is devoted to the life of Krishna – Kapila (Sankhya System) and Buddha appear as incarnation of Vishnu. This purana rejects superiority of Brahman on the basis of birth.
• Agni purana has an encyclopaedic character – it deals with subjects like astronomy, geography, grammar, law, medicine, politics etc. – It is saivite and deals with cult of Linga, Durga, Ganesh etc.
• The Brahmavaivarta Purana,shows “Brahma” to be the creator of the world.
• In the Garuda Purana more emphasis is laid on various forms of Vishnu-worship. Like the Agni Purana, this work too has assumed as encyclopaedic form.
• The contents of the Ramayana the Mahabharata and the Harivamsa are retold and there are sections on cosmography, astronomy and astrology, omens and portents, chiromancy, medicine metrics, grammar, knowledge of precious stones (ratnapariksha) and politics (niti).
• The most important purana is Vishnu Dharmottara purana. It is encyclopedic in nature. Along with the narratives, it also deals with cosmology, cosmogony, geography, astronomy, astrology, division of time, pacification of unfavorable planets and stars, genealogies(mostly of kings and sages), manners and customs, penances, duties of Vaishnavas, law and politics, war strategies, treatment of diseases of human beings and animals, cuisine, grammar, metrics etc.
• Puranas are mythological works which propagate religious and spiritual messages through parables and fables.
• They have a potent influence in the development of the religious lives of the people. These are meant for the celebration of religion, the glorification of saints and kings, and the edification of readers, whose faith is to be strengthened.
• They are full of myths, stories, legends and sermons that were meant for the education of the common people.
• Thus, they are the instruments of popular education. Dharma or social duty reflects the same Hindu law codes basically Brahminical, and is given in illustrative stories, and in lecture form.
• Puranas is devotional material from the bhakti tradition; the stories about the gods who are the objects of people’s loyalty, and practices of various kinds appropriate to the worship of those gods.
• The gods are stratified, for there appear both vedic and post vedic deities together. Of the vedic gods, indra, agni, soma, vayu and surya reappear in puranic lore, but they are no longer central, as they were to vedic ritual and some of their functions have changed. It is as if they have been demoted in favour of the famous Hindu ‘triad’ of Brahma, the creator, Visnu the preserver, and Siva the destroyer, who dominate puranic literature.
• Some of these Puranas have a local tinge so that the Brahma Purana may represent the Orissa version of the original work just as the Padma may give that of Pushkara, the Agni that of Gaya, the Varaha that of Mathura.
• From the historical point of view the most important Puranas giving ancient royal genealogies are the Vayu, Brahmana, Matsya and the Vishnu.
• Alberuni mentions all the 18 puranas.

Theme (subject matter) of purana:

Have five core subjects:

• Sarga, the original creation of the universe
• Pratisarga, the periodical process of destruction and re-creation Manvantara, the different eras or Cosmic cycles Four ages/yugas are mentioned in purana: Krita, Treta, Dwapar and Kaliyug.
• According to purana, each next, is phase of deterioration and degeneration in all aspect (particularly moral).
• This cycle of time connected with cyclical decline and revival of dharma.
• Surya Vamsha and Chandra Vamsa, the histories of the solar and lunar dynasties of Gods and sages Vamshanucharita, the genealogies of kings.
• Dynastic history of Haryanka, Nanda, Maurya, Shunga, Satavahana etc are given. The list ends with Guptas indicating that most puranas were compiled during this time.

Around this core skeleton of the five subjects any Purana adds other diverse materials:

• Social traditions and customs,
• Social ceremonies and sacrifices, rituals,
• Festivals,
• the duties of various castes,
• different types of donations,
• Also reflect the emergence of religious cults based on devotion- Vishnu, Shiva, Shakti etc.
• Purana reflects interation of Brahmanical and non-Brahmanical culture traditions and development of Hindu religious practices.
• details of the construction of temples and images, and
• descriptions of places of pilgrimage.
• Description of details of Mantras are mentioned in Puranas
• Description of priestly class and
• Description of many folk tradition e.g. tree worship,
• Details of Astronomy,
• Details of medicines,
• deal with cosmology,
• Details of rules and laws,
• Interestingly, one purana, viz., vayu-purana attempts at geography, music, etc.
• Gives account of mountains, rivers and places etc.
• The law books of Gupta age allowed shudras and women to study puranas. So, Purana had larger reach. That means larger spread.
• Purana played a role in spreading both religious and secular ideas in ancient times.

Challenges of Using Purana as a Historical Source

• Distinction Between History and Mythology: History and mythology are fundamentally different in their approach. History employs a specific method that allows for the disputation of claims made by historians. It aims to gather as much evidence (not facts) as possible. In contrast, Puranas do not adhere to the relevance of evidence, making it impossible to refute or defend their claims.
• Lack of Evidence: Puranas neglect the importance of evidence, which is a significant drawback. They also combine legends about gods, demons, and life after death, disqualifying them from serious philosophical study.
• Inclusiveness as a Flaw: While Puranas encompass various aspects of life, this all-inclusiveness is considered a defect. Their focus on theological issues, despite covering a wide range of topics, detracts from their reliability as historical sources.

Itihasas (Epics):

• Ancient Indian Epics: The two renowned epics from the Sanskrit tradition are the Ramayana by Valmiki and the Mahabharata by Vyasa. These epics have significantly influenced literature across India for centuries and have various renditions in different Indian languages.
• Purpose of the Epics: The epics aim to convey the laws of the smritis and the principles of the sruti through the exploits of national heroes like Rama and Krishna. The Ramayana exemplifies ideal human traits such as brotherhood, obedience to moral law, honesty, sacrifice, and goodness, presenting a vision of an ideal society.
• The Ramayana: The Ramayana is rooted in the principles of Sanatana Dharma, particularly emphasizing the duties of a ruler. It showcases the life of Rama, a divine hero whose deeds set an example for humanity.
• The Mahabharata: The Mahabharata encompasses a more profound theme, intertwining history, mythology, ethics, and metaphysics. Initially written in Sanskrit with 8,800 verses, it evolved through various stages, ultimately comprising 100,000 verses. The epic narrates the conflict between the Kauravas and the Pandavas and includes the Bhagavad Gita, a text embodying divine wisdom and universal teachings.
• Origins and Composition: The epics differ from early Vedic literature as they emerged not from priestly classes but from traditional bards called sutas, who were often charioteers witnessing battles firsthand. The original forms of these epics are not preserved; they have been modified over time by various contributors.
• Distinctive Features: One notable aspect of the Itihasa-Purana tradition is the fully developed concept of avatar (divine incarnation) within the epics and Puranas. The purpose of an avatar is threefold: to protect the virtuous, to destroy the wicked, and to establish dharma (moral order).

Buddhist Literature

The earliest Buddhist texts were composed in Pali, a language spoken in Magadha and South Bihar. These texts are categorized into canonical and non-canonical literature.

The Canonical Literature

The canonical literature is exemplified by the Tripitakas, or "Three Baskets," which include the Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka, and Abhidhamma Pitaka. All three pitakas are written in Pali.

Vinaya Pitaka:

• Vinaya Pitaka: Focuses on rules and regulations for monastic life.

Sutta Pitaka:

• Sutta Pitaka: Contains teachings attributed to the Buddha, including ethical discourse and guidance on the Dharma.

Abhidhamma Pitaka:

• Abhidhamma Pitaka: Philosophical and metaphysical discussions on subjects like ethics, psychology, and epistemology.

The Sutta Pitaka

The Sutta Pitaka is the most extensive and significant part of the Tripitaka, encompassing the teachings of the Buddha. It is divided into five sections, known as Nikayas:

• Digha (Long) Nikaya: A collection of lengthy sermons attributed to the Buddha, detailing the context in which they were delivered.
• Majjhima (Medium) Nikaya: Contains shorter sermons.
• Samyutta (Connected) Nikaya: Collections of brief statements.
• Anguttara (Graduated) Nikaya: Over 2,000 brief statements organized into eleven sections.
• Khuddaka (Minor) Nikaya: A collection of various texts in prose and verse, including:
• Dhammapada: Verses summarizing the Buddha’s teachings.
• Theragatha: Hymns of elder monks.
• Therigatha: Hymns of elder nuns.
• Jatakas: Poems about the Buddha’s previous births, often in animal forms.

Mahayana Sutras

• The Mahayana Sutras are a wide-ranging category of scriptures accepted as canonical by various traditions of Mahayana Buddhism. These texts are primarily preserved in the Chinese Buddhist canon, the Tibetan Buddhist canon, and existing Sanskrit manuscripts.
• Approximately one hundred Mahayana sutras survive in Sanskrit or in translations into Chinese and Tibetan. Mahayana Buddhists typically believe that these sutras were taught by Gautama Buddha, memorized, and recited by his disciples.

Non-canonical Literature

• The non-canonical literature is exemplified by the Jatakas, which narrate the previous births of the Buddha. It is believed that before his final birth as Gautama, the Buddha practiced Dharma through more than 550 previous lives, often in the form of animals. Each birth story is called a Jataka.
• The Jatakas provide valuable insights into the social and economic conditions from the sixth century BC to the second century BC and occasionally reference political events during the Buddha’s time.

Milind Panho:

• The Milind Panho is a dialogue between the Indo-Greek king Menander and the Buddhist monk Nagasena, discussing various philosophical topics. It is written in Pali and dates back to the post-Mauryan period.

Niti Gandha:

• The Niti Gandha, also written in Pali, recounts the teachings of the Buddha.

Atthakatha:

• The Atthakatha, a commentary on the Tripitaka, was composed by Buddhaghosh in the fifth century AD.

Dipvamsa and Mahavamsa:

• The Dipvamsa and Mahavamsa, written in Pali in Sri Lanka during the fourth to fifth centuries AD, provide a historical and mythical account of the Buddha’s life and include descriptions of Buddhist councils. These texts also mention Ashoka.

Mahavastu:

• The Mahavastu is a sacred biography of the Buddha that details the rise of monastic orders, known as the “Sangha.” It is written in a mix of Sanskrit and Prakrit.

Lalitvistara:

• The Lalitvistara is another biography of the Buddha, written in a mixture of Sanskrit and Prakrit.

Buddhacharita:

• The Buddhacharita, authored by Ashvaghosh, is primarily written in Sanskrit and focuses on the life of the Buddha.

Avadana Literature

• Avadana literature, meaning “Legends,” is a type of Buddhist literature that connects virtuous deeds from past lives to events in subsequent lives. These stories illustrate the concept of karma by revealing past actions and their consequences in the present life.
• Avadana literature includes around 600 stories in the Pali language, with significant collections in Sanskrit as well. Notable Sanskrit collections include the Mahavastu of the Mahasaṃghika tradition, the Avadanasataka of the Sarvastivada tradition, and the Divyavadana.
• With the emergence of Mahayana Buddhism in the fourth council, Sanskrit became a prominent language for Buddhist literature.

Jaina Literature

• Jaina texts, composed in Prakrit, were ultimately compiled in the sixth century AD in Valabhi, Gujarat. Initially, only canonical literature was prevalent, with non-canonical literature developing in later medieval times.
• The term Agamas refers to Jaina canonical literature, as well as Saivite canonical literature. This literature includes the 14 Purvas, which are textbooks of old Jaina scriptures preached by all Tirthankaras(omniscient teachers) of Jainism. The Purvas encompass a vast body of knowledge and those who possessed this knowledge were called Shrutakevali, or "scripturally omniscient persons." Both the Svetambara and Digambara traditions of Jainism believe that all fourteen purvas have been lost.
• The 12 Angas contain doctrines, rules of conduct, and the history of Mahavira. It is the most significant text dealing with the doctrine, rules, and life of Mahavira.
• The 12 Upangas are associated with each Anga and focus on topics such as creation, the universe, and periodization.
• The 10 Prakirnas are doctrinal matters presented in verse form and are supplements to the Angas and Upangas.
• The 6 Chedasutras provide rules for monks and nuns, holding a significance in Jainism similar to that of the Vinay Pitaka in Buddhism.
• The 4 Malasutras address sermons, life in the Sangha, and the duties of monks.
• Niryuktis are commentaries on the Angas and were prepared around 100 AD.
• The Kalpasutra, written by Bhadrabahu, chronicles the history of Jainism from its inception.
• The Acharang Sutras is the oldest Jaina text containing monastic rules.
• Among notable Jain scholars are Haribhadra Suri, from the eighth century AD, and Hemchandra Suri, from the twelfth century AD.
• Jainism contributed to a rich literary tradition encompassing poetry, philosophy, and grammar. These works offer insights into the political history of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
• Jain texts frequently reference trade and traders.

Sangam Literature

• Sangam literature is a vast collection of literature in Tamil produced during the Sangam Age (400-300 BC to 300-400 AD) in South India.
• Though secular in nature, Sangam literature portrays various aspects of religious life. Initially written in Brahmi, it later transitioned to the Grantha script.
• Sangam literature is the product of three sangams, or assemblies of litterateurs and poets, under the patronage of the Pandayan kings. The works of the first sangam no longer exist.
• The second sangam produced the significant work on grammar,Tolkappiyam, attributed to Tolkappiyar.
• The third sangam produced:
  • Patthu Patu(Ten Idyll),
  • Ettuthokai(Eight Collections),
  • 19 minor didactic poems, among which the Kural or Tirrukural, written by Tiruvalluvar, is the most famous,
  • 10 epics, with Silapaddikaram and Manimekalai being the most notable.
• Sangam literature is essentially poetry divided into two broad categories:
  • Agam(Love),
  • Puram(War and Praise of Kings).
• Agam literature is further divided based on regions:
  • (a)Kurinchi– Hills,
  • (b)Palai– Dry Land,
  • (c)Mullai– Forest Land,
  • (d)Maaruntham– Cultivated Land,
  • (e)Neithal– Coastal Region.
• Sangam literature provides insights into the social, economic, religious, and political life of the Sangam age.
• It reflects the experiences of both the ruling classes and common people, offering information about dynastic history, exploits of kings, and wars.
• Additionally, it sheds light on social classes, economic pursuits, and religious practices and beliefs.

Other Types of Literature

• The hymns of the Rigveda, particularly the dialogue hymns, are considered the earliest elements of drama.
• Bharata's Natyashastra, is the oldest surviving work on Sanskrit dramaturgy, providing foundational insights into the art of drama and performance.

Asvaghosha

• Asvaghosha is credited with writing three Buddhist dramas in Sanskrit.
• While the authorship of one of these dramas, the Sariputra Prakarna, is confirmed, the other two dramas remain uncertain.

Bhasha

• Bhasha was a playwright from the 2nd or 3rd century AD, predating Kalidasa.
• He is known for writing the largest number of plays in Sanskrit, with at least 13 plays attributed to him.
• Kalidasa makes a respectful reference to Bhasha in his works.
• Some of Bhasha's notable plays include Madhyama Vyayoga, Pratima Natak, Abhishek Natak(which draws themes from the Ramayana), and Charudata.
• Bhasha also incorporated Prakrit language in his plays.

Sudraka

• Sudraka, a playwright before Kalidasa, is known for writing the play Mrichchhakatika in Sanskrit.
• The play is based on the plot of Charudatta by Bhasha, but Sudraka's version combines the theme with political events, where Vasantsena eventually becomes the lawful wife of Charudatta.
• The character of Vidusak is also present in Sudraka's play.

Kalidasa

• Kalidasa, a Brahmin from Ujjain and a devotee of Shiva, lived in the 4th century AD and is regarded as a gem of Sanskrit literature.
• His first play,Malvikaagnimitra, is a comedy about Agnimitra falling in love with a maid.
• His second play,Vikramorvasiya, is a fairy tale about the love between a celestial nymph and a mortal, drawing elements from the Rigveda and the Satapath Brahmana.
• Kalidasa's most important play,Abhijnan Sakuntala, borrows the story of Sakuntala from the Mahabharata, focusing on the theme of Dushyant and Sakuntala.
• In addition to plays, Kalidasa wrote two Mahakavyas:Raghuvamsa, based on the Ramayana and some Puranas, describing 30 kings of the solar race with Raghu being one of them, and Kumarsambhava, telling the story of the birth of Kumar, the son of Shiva and Parvati, who vanquished the demon Taraka.
• Kalidasa also composed lyrical poems such as Meghaduta, which describes the theme of a Yaksha separated from his beloved through his master's curse, requesting clouds to carry his message from Ranagiri to Alaka, and Ritusamhara, which describes the six seasons.

Harsha

• Three plays are attributed to Harsha:Ratnavali, Priyadarisaka, and Nagnanda.
• Ratnavali is considered the most perfect play and was his first work, closely imitating Kalidasa.
• Priyadarisaka introduces the new device of Garbha-natak(drama within a drama), used for the first time in a Sanskrit play, later adopted by Bhavabhuti in Uttararama Charita and by Rajshekhar in Balramayan.
• Nagnanda depicts the story of Jimutavahana with a Buddhist tinge and is considered Harsha's last work.

Bhavabhuti

• Bhavabhuti, who lived in the early 8th century AD, was born in Vidarbha and served as a court poet for Yasovarman, the king of Kannauj, according to Rajtarangini.
• He wrote three plays:Mahavir Charita, which describes the early life of Rama and is based on the Ramayana;Matti Madhav, which tells the love story of Malti and Madhav with a happy ending; and Uttararamacharita, which deals with the story of Uttarakhand from the Ramayana.
• Among his three plays, Uttararamacharita is the last written.
• Bhavabhuti is noted for his use of the Garbha-Natak technique in his plays.
• He is also recognized for surpassing Kalidasa in depicting sentiments, particularly Karuna(pathos or tenderness).
• Unlike Kalidasa, there is no presence of Vidushak(comic character) in his plays, indicating a negation of Hasya(humor).
• The theme of love in Bhavabhuti's plays is more spiritual than sensuous, contrasting with Kalidasa's approach.

Vishakhadutta

• Vishakhadutta, who lived in the 7th century AD, was either the son of Maharaja Bhaskardatta or Minister Prithu.
• He wrote Mudrarakshasa, a drama based on political and historical themes, notable for being a drama without a heroine and without Sringara(love sentiments).
• The play describes the role of Chanakya in winning over Rakshasa, the minister of the Nandas.
• He also wrote Devichandragupta, which narrates how Dhruvadevi was saved by Chandragupta II from the Sakas.
• Additionally, he wrote Abhisarikavanchitak or Bandhitaka, based on the legend of Udayana and Padmavati.

Rajshekhara

• Rajshekhara, the son of minister Darduka and belonging to the Yayavara family of Maharashtra in the 9th century AD, was the guru of Mahendrapala(Pratihara).
• His wife,Avantasundari, was an accomplished princess from the Chahamana family.
• Rajshekhara composed four dramas:Balramayan, Balbharata, Viddhasalabhanjika, and Karpuramanjari.
• Balramayan utilizes the Garbha Natak technique and is a Rama play.
• Balbharata was composed for King Mahipala(Pratihara).
• Karpuramanjari was written at the instance of Awantsundari.
• Rajshekhara also wrote Kavyamimamsa on poetics and Harivilasa and Bhuvanakosa on geography.

Kshemisvara

• Also known as Kshemendra but not to be confused with the Kashmirian writer of the same name, Kshemisvara wrote Chandakausika for Mahipala(Pratihara).
• He lived in the 11th century AD and also composed Naishadhnand.

Other Plays

• Prasanna-raghav by Jayadev
• Tapati Samvama by Kulshekhar(King of Kerala)
• Karnasundari by Bilhan(Court of Vikramaditya VI)
• Lalitavigraharajanatak by Somdev for Chahamana king Visaldev

Story Literature

• Panchtantra is the earliest story collection, compiled by Vishnu Sharma during the Gupta period to educate the foolish sons of King Amarkirti.
• Hitopadesh, authored by Narayana, is the second famous collection of Indian stories.
• Brihatkatha by Gundhya, written in Paisachi Prakrit, is a lost work from probably the 1st century AD.
• Brihatkathaslovkasamgraha by Buddhaswamin, an 8th-century AD version of Brihatkatha.
• Nepalese version of Brihatkatha.
• Brihatkathamanjari by Kshemendra, an 11th-century AD version of Brihatkatha.
• Kshemendra, the court-poet of King Anant of Kashmir, also wrote Bharat Manjari, Ramayan Manjari, Padya Kadambari, and Dasavatara Charita.
• Kathasavitsagar by Somdev, an 11th-century AD Kashmirian version of Brihatkatha, written for Suryamati, the wife of King Anant of Kashmir.
• Other story collections include Shukptati, Baital Panchvishatika, and Sinhasan Dwatrishika.

Books on Polity

• Science of polity is known by different names: Arthashastra, Dandaniti, Nitisastra, Rajniti.
• Arthasastra by Chanakya or Vishnugupta.
• Pratipad Panchik, a commentary on Arthashastra by Bhattswami.
• Nitisar by Kamandak, 8th century AD.
• Sukra Niti Sar by Sukra Charya.
• Laghu Arhan Niti Sastra by Hemchandra.

The Nature of Ancient Indian Historical Traditions

In ancient texts, there is evidence of a desire to preserve the memory of the past, indicating a historical tradition. Romila Thapar distinguishes between ‘embedded’ and ‘externalized’ forms of history. Embedded history involves extracting historical consciousness from sources like myth, epic, and genealogy, while externalized history reflects a more self-conscious awareness of history, seen in chronicles and biographies. Thapar notes that embedded forms are linked to lineage-based societies, whereas externalized ones are associated with state societies.

Later Vedic Texts

Later Vedic texts contain compositions that reflect a historical consciousness, directly related to the performance of sacrifices (yajnas). These compositions include:

• Dana-stutis: Hymns praising the generosity and exploits of kings.
• Gathas: Songs in praise of kings, sung during certain sacrifices.
• Narashamsis: Used in rituals and preserved in texts like the Brahmanas and Grihyasutras.
• Akhyanas: Narrative hymns in dialogue form, referring to mythical and possibly historical events.

The king-lists in the Puranas and epics represent more substantial evidence of an ancient Indian historical tradition. The epics, known as itihasa, are believed to record actual events, regardless of their accuracy.

Bards:

• Bards, such as sutas and magadhas, played a crucial role in preserving historical traditions. Poets and bards from ancient Tamil land who praised their royal patrons also contributed to the creation and transmission of historical traditions.

Mythico-Historical Accounts:

• Texts like the Buddhist Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa, which provide a mythico-historical account of Buddhism's journey to Sri Lanka, exemplify historical traditions. Sacred biographies in the Buddhist, Jaina, and Hindu traditions also contribute to this aspect.

Royal Biographies and Inscriptions:

• Despite their eulogistic nature, royal biographies reflect a historical tradition. Royal inscriptions, often containing prashasti with the king’s genealogy and exploits, also contribute to this tradition.

Royal Archives for Official Records:

• Texts like the Arthashastra and accounts by the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang mention royal archives preserving official records in Indian cities. Al-Biruni’s 11th-century Tahqiq-i-Hind refers to the archives of the Shahi kings of Kabul, though no ancient archives survive today.

Divergent Notions of History

• While various historical traditions existed in ancient and early medieval India, they differ significantly from modern notions of history. Intellectuals of different ages select and interpret past aspects in their own ways. The differences between ancient and modern societies contribute to the distinct approaches to the past.
• Unlike modern historians who differentiate between myth and history, ancient texts do not make such distinctions. Historical traditions in ancient India were intertwined with religious, ritualistic, and court contexts. In contrast, history today is an academic discipline rooted in research and linked to modern institutions like universities and research institutes.
• The understanding and representation of the past in ancient texts differ greatly from the methods and goals of contemporary historical research.