Towns | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Towns

Abdul Fazl's Perspective on Urbanization:

• According to Abdul Fazl, people attached to the world gather in towns, which are essential for progress.

Historical Context:

• After the growth of towns and town life during the Sultanate period, the pace of town development accelerated in the 16th and 17th centuries and continued until the mid-18th century.
• The Mughals established peace, law, and order in north and central India, fostering commerce and manufacture. This era is considered a “golden age of urbanization.”

Regional Variations:

• The process of urbanization varied across the empire:
• Western U.P. and Eastern Punjab were the most rapidly developing regions until the late 17th century.
• Eastern U.P., Bihar, and Bengal advanced in the early 18th century, aided by strong local rulers like the Nawabs.
• Poona and Hugli also developed significantly, particularly under Maratha rule.

Types of Urban Centers:

• Administrative Towns: These towns served primarily as seats of governance, with secondary roles in manufacturing or religion. Notable examples include Agra, Delhi, Lahore, and various provincial capitals. Later, towns like Poona, Faizabad, and Hyderabad became important administrative centers.
• Religious Towns: These towns were primarily religious and pilgrimage centers with some trade and craft activities. Examples include Banaras, Mathura, Kanchi, and Tirumalai. Ajmer served both religious and administrative functions.
• Military/Strategic Towns: These towns developed as military cantonments and gradually attracted civilian populations. Examples include Attock and Asirgarh.
• Commercial Towns: These towns were centers of large-scale commercial activities or production, often with some administrative functions. Notable examples are Patna and Ahmedabad. Towns like Bayana (indigo), Patan (dyeing), and Khairabad (textiles) were known for distinctive manufacturing techniques or local commodities.

Rural-Urban Continuum:

• An average town in the Mughal Empire was an extension of the village in terms of social units and attitudes.
• This rural-urban continuum was a notable feature of urbanization during the Mughal period.

Diversity of Urban Economies:

• The diversity of urban economies in the Mughal Empire means that the stereotype of an Indian town does not apply universally.
• Two seemingly similar cities could have distinctive characteristics despite functional similarities.

Urban Landscape

Overview of Mughal Towns:

• Common Features: Despite variations, some common features of Mughal towns can be identified.
• Size Disagreement: Scholars do not agree on the size of a town, but it is generally accepted that town size depends on the country's population.
• Market Presence: The existence of a market is a basic feature of a town.
• Qasba Definition: The smallest towns in India, known as qasba, are defined as villages with markets. They exhibit characteristics of village life, such as agricultural production, along with a market.
• Administrative Role: Typically, a qasba also served as a pargana (administrative division) headquarters.
• Hierarchy of Towns: There was a hierarchy of towns ranging from humble qasbas to district (sarkar) headquarters, provincial, and imperial towns like Agra, Delhi, and Lahore.
• Akbar's Empire: During Akbar's reign, there were 120 big cities and 3,200 townships or rural towns (qasbas), excluding towns and townships in South India.

Large Towns in the 17th Century:

• Agra: In the 17th century, Agra was the largest city with an estimated population of 500,000, increasing to 600,000 when the Emperor was present.
• Delhi: Delhi became as populous as Paris, the largest town in Europe at the time.
• Lahore: According to the traveler Coryat, Lahore was larger than Agra and one of the largest cities in the world.
• Ahmadabad: Ahmadabad was estimated to be larger than London and its suburbs.
• Patna: Patna had a population of 200,000.
• Other Large Towns: Dacca, Rajmahal, Thatta, Burhanpur, and Masulipatam were also significant towns.

Urban Population Ratio:

• During the 17th century, there was a high ratio of urban to total population in the country, estimated at 15 percent, a proportion not exceeded until the mid-20th century.

Town Characteristics:

• In Mughal India, the largest towns were vibrant centers of manufacturing, marketing, banking, and entrepreneurial activities.
• They served as intersections in a network of communications by land and water, connecting the subcontinent to South East Asia, the Middle East, Western Europe, and beyond.

Physical Configuration

Fortification Wall:

• Most towns had fortification walls with gates.
• John Jourdain described Agra in the 17th century as walled, with suburbs connected to the walls.
• Nobles built mansions and gardens outside town gates, creating suburbs in cities like Delhi, Agra, Patna, Ahmedabad, and Allahabad.

Markets:

• Planned towns had well-laid markets.
• Shops lined both sides of main roads, with some markets specializing in specific commodities.
• Area names in Agra indicated specialties, such as Loha Gali (iron objects) and sabzimandi (vegetable mart).

Chowks:

• Principal roads in towns formed chowks, which were generally paved.

Mohalla:

• Cities were divided into mohallas, where people of similar caste or profession lived.
• Mohallas were locked at night for security and often identified by professional groups, like mochiwara (shoemakers).

Sarai:

• Sarais, or halting places for merchants and travelers, were common even in small towns.
• Larger towns had numerous sarais, built by nobles, royal ladies, big merchants, or the state.
• Sarais provided amenities for travelers, managed by families of bhatiyaras.

Structure Suited to Climatic Conditions:

• Housing in Shahjahanbad was designed for India's climate, emphasizing airiness and terraces for sleeping outside at night.
• Many houses were made of clay and straw, with courts and gardens, though few were built entirely of brick or stone.
• Common soldiers and camp followers lived in small, mud-and-straw houses intermixed with shops.

Town Planning:

• Foreign visitors were required to inform city administration of their arrival and departure.
• Overall, towns lacked detailed planning, with major streets being the exception, while other lanes were congested and muddy.

Administrative machinery of the city

It has been argued that cities in India lacked a distinct legal character and civic life, unlike European towns. However, this perspective is challenged by historical evidence.

Max Weber claimed that oriental cities lacked corporate and civic identity compared to their European counterparts. This view is contested due to medieval evidence indicating the presence of such characteristics in Indian cities.

Indian medieval cities had their own administrative machinery and regulations to manage day-to-day affairs effectively. The state played a crucial role in establishing governance systems, as evidenced by various administrative roles.

• Kotwal: The kotwal was responsible for the general administration of the city, overseeing law and order. He had a staff for watch and ward duties and could seek help from the faujdar in special cases.
• Work: The kotwal controlled economic activities by regulating weights and measures, tracking prices, and prohibiting illegal cesses. He also had various civic duties, such as appointing people to oversee water courses, prohibiting the sale of slaves, organizing handicrafts, and keeping track of births, deaths, and census operations.
• Daroga: Different types of darogas were responsible for specific tasks, including market oversight, postal services, public works, gate management, and royal workshops.
• Mudasaddi: The mudasaddi was in charge of administration within the city.
• Mir-i-Bakal: According to the Ain-i-Akbari by Abul Fazal, the Mir-i-Bakal was responsible for provisioning in cities like Agra, ensuring food products were sourced from various areas.
• Urban autonomous institutions and self-administered bodies based on socio-economic traditions coordinated with the state. Mohallas or wards functioned as such institutions.
• The Mir-i-Muhalla supervised the affairs of muhallas, and nagar seths(merchant heads) and urban guilds played roles in occupational regulation, sometimes based on caste or religious lines.
• This structure facilitated local consultation and participation, indicating a degree of civic character in medieval towns.

Composition of Population (Urban Classes)

Urban Population Composition:
The urban population was diverse and could be broadly classified into four groups:

• Nobles and Retainers: Includes nobles, state officials, and troops.
• Merchants: Individuals involved in trade, such as merchants, moneylenders, and brokers.
• Professionals: People associated with religious establishments, artists, musicians, poets, and physicians.
• Artisans and Laborers: Various types of craftsmen, manual workers, and laborers.

Composition Variation: The composition of these groups varied depending on the nature of the town, whether it was an administrative or commercial center.
Imperial Headquarters: At imperial centers, a significant portion of the population comprised the retainers and troops of the king and nobles.
Bernier's Estimate: Historian Bernier estimated Shah Jahan's great camp strength at around 300,000 to 400,000.
Commercial Centers: In major towns, especially commercial centers, the mercantile community was crucial. For instance, Ahmedabad had around 84 castes of Hindu merchants.
Broking in Patna: In Patna, there were 600 brokers in 1640, highlighting the importance of trade.
Professionals in Towns: People involved in medicine, literature, art, and music were also prominent in towns, often attracted by the potential for income and patronage from the king and nobles.
Artisans and Craftsmen: Artisans were divided into various groups, including:

• Individual Artisans: Working independently and selling their products.
• Artisans in Karkhanas: Employed in workshops of kings, nobles, or large-scale construction projects.

Workforce Types: A large workforce included semi-skilled and unskilled workers assisting artisans or engaged in large-scale enterprises like shipbuilding, diamond mining, and salt production. There were also domestic helpers and daily wage laborers.

Urban Demography

Tabqat-i Akbari(circa 1593) notes that during Akbar's reign, there were approximately 120 major cities and 3,200 qasbas(small towns) in Mughal India. By the 17th century, with the rise in trade and commerce, the number of towns and cities likely increased further.

Historian Irfan Habib estimates that about 15% of the total population in Mughal India lived in towns.

European travelers provide scattered references about the size and characteristics of individual towns during this period.

Urban Life: Standard of Living:

• The standard of living in medieval cities displayed a stark contrast. While the upper classes lived in a manner similar to royalty, the urban poor struggled to meet even the bare minimum for survival.
• In Goa, travelers like Linschoten noted the miserable conditions of the common people, describing them as weak and poorly nourished.
• De Laet also observed the plight of the common people, mentioning low wages, inadequate housing, and insufficient warmth during winter.
• Rich merchants were sometimes seen as overly concerned about their appearance, as noted by Bernier.
• Barbosa admired the rich dress styles of Muslim merchants in Calicut, while Pietro della Valle commented on the splendor of merchants in Surat.
• Hindu nobles followed the dress styles of their Muslim counterparts, with specific cultural markers like the tilak for Brahmans and earrings for Rajputs.
• The lower strata of society often wore minimal clothing, with some people going naked.
• In the Vijaynagar Empire, Barbosa noted that the common masses were nearly naked, wearing only a piece of cloth around their waists.
• Linschoten also remarked on the poverty of the common people in Goa, highlighting their lack of clothing.
• Babur described the simple clothing of peasants and low-status individuals, including the lunguta and quilted garments for winter.
• Travelers like Pelsaert and Pietro della Valle recorded that urban workers earned an average monthly wage of Rs. 3 to 4.
• Shireen Moosvi demonstrated that the purchasing power of unskilled workers was significantly higher in 1595 compared to 1867-1871, allowing workers in Akbar's time to afford more food and better quality items.
• However, purchasing power for clothing declined over time, and skilled workers saw a more marked decrease in their ability to purchase food.
• Middle classes, such as petty revenue officials, lower-ranking mansabdars, and physicians, generally enjoyed a decent standard of living, while intellectuals struggled financially, relying on patrons for support.
• Nobles and the upper classes lived lavishly, with accounts of amirs spending large sums in a day.
• Moreland noted that spending rather than hoarding was a prevalent behavior, and Shireen Moosvi analyzed the consumption patterns of royalty and nobles, revealing that a substantial portion of their spending went towards luxury and comfort.
• Despite their wealth, many nobles were in debt due to extravagant gifts to the king and large households, leading them to extract more from peasants than necessary.
• Nobles contributed to the development of craft production, with a significant portion of their salaries supporting this sector, though much of this was for personal consumption rather than market production.
• Despite large investments in craft production, there was no significant home market generated, as the majority of expenditures were for personal use.