UNO and the global disputes | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Formation and Purpose of the United Nations Organization (UNO)

• The United Nations Organization (UNO) is an intergovernmental organization that was established in October 1945, following the end of the Second World War. Its primary purpose is to prevent future conflicts and promote peace worldwide. The UNO was created to replace the League of Nations, which had proven ineffective in maintaining peace. In forming the UNO, the founding powers aimed to address the weaknesses that had hindered the League's efforts.
• The UN Charter, which outlines the organization's principles and goals, was drafted in San Francisco in 1945. It was based on proposals discussed at a previous meeting in Dumbarton Oaks, USA, in 1944, attended by representatives from the USSR, the USA, China, and Britain. At its inception, the United Nations had 51 member states. Today, the organization has grown to include 193 member states, with South Sudan being the latest addition.
• The headquarters of the United Nations is located in Manhattan, New York City, where it enjoys extraterritoriality, meaning it is not subject to local laws. The UN also has major offices in Geneva, Nairobi, and Vienna.

Aims of the United Nations:

• Preserving Peace: The UN strives to maintain global peace and prevent wars from occurring.
• Addressing Conflict Causes: It works to eliminate the root causes of conflicts by promoting economic, social, educational, scientific, and cultural progress, particularly in underdeveloped countries.
• Safeguarding Human Rights: The organization is dedicated to protecting the rights of individual human beings, as well as the rights of peoples and nations.

UN System Agencies:

• The UN system includes various specialized agencies such as the World Bank Group, the World Health Organization, the World Food Programme, UNESCO, and UNICEF. These agencies carry out specific tasks and contribute to the UN's overall mission. Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) can also participate in the UN's work by obtaining consultative status with the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) and other agencies.

Recognition:

• The United Nations was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001, recognizing its efforts in promoting peace and security. Additionally, several of its officers and agencies have also received the Nobel Peace Prize for their significant contributions. This highlights the impact and importance of the UN's work on the global stage.

Background and Creation

In the century leading up to the establishment of the United Nations (UN), various international treaty organizations and conferences were initiated. These early efforts laid the groundwork for global cooperation.
International organizations were formed by states to address specific issues. For instance:

• The International Telecommunication Union was established in 1865.
• The International Telegraph Union and the Universal Postal Union were founded in 1874, both of which are now specialized agencies of the UN.

In 1899, the International Peace Conference took place in The Hague, focusing on peaceful crisis resolution, war prevention, and the codification of warfare rules. It led to the adoption of the Convention for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes and the establishment of the Permanent Court of Arbitration, which became operational in 1902.

To manage conflicts between nations, the International Committee of the Red Cross and the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 were created.

• After World War I, the Paris Peace Conference set up the League of Nations under the Treaty of Versailles, aiming to maintain peace among nations. The League addressed some territorial disputes and established international frameworks for areas like postal mail, aviation, and opium control, some of which were later integrated into the UN.
• However, the League faced challenges due to its lack of representation for colonial peoples (who constituted about half the world’s population at the time) and the absence of major powers like the United States and the Soviet Union. The League struggled to respond effectively to significant events, such as the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the Second Italian-Ethiopian War in 1935, the Japanese invasion of China in 1937, and the aggressive expansions under Adolf Hitler that eventually led to World War II.
• The League was only successful in addressing issues where the interests of major powers were not at stake. Its decision-making process, based on consensus rather than voting, made it more difficult to reach agreements.

The International Labour Organization was also established under the Treaty of Versailles as a related agency of the League.

1942 “Declaration of United Nations” by Allies of World War II

Atlantic Charter:

• In response to Germany’s successful attacks on Britain, Greece, and Yugoslavia, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt met aboard the USS Prince of Wales in Placentia Bay, Newfoundland, from August 9-10, 1941, to discuss their respective war aims and outline a post-war international system. At that time, Germany had invaded the Soviet Union and was preparing to attack Egypt, while both leaders were concerned about Japan’s intentions in Southeast Asia.
• Churchill and Roosevelt had their own motivations for wanting to sign the Atlantic Charter. They hoped that the charter would sway American public opinion toward involvement in the war. However, they were disappointed as Americans continued to reject the idea of joining the war until after the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor.
• The Atlantic Charter was created to demonstrate solidarity between the United States and the United Kingdom in the face of German aggression. It aimed to boost morale and was even turned into leaflets that were airdropped over occupied territories.

The charter included eight “common principles” that the United States and Great Britain committed to supporting in the post-war world:

• Neither country sought territorial or other aggrandizement.
• No territorial changes would occur without the freely expressed wishes of the peoples concerned.
• All peoples had the right to choose their form of government, and sovereign rights and self-government would be restored to those forcibly deprived of them.
• Access to trade and raw materials would be ensured for all states, regardless of size or status.
• Full collaboration among all nations in the economic field would be pursued to improve labor standards, economic advancement, and social security.
• A peace ensuring safety for all nations would be established.
• Such a peace should allow free passage across the high seas and oceans.
• All nations must abandon the use of force, and disarmament was deemed essential pending the establishment of a wider and permanent system of general security.

The Atlantic Charter was released by Churchill and Roosevelt on August 14, 1941, even before the United States became involved in World War II. It provided a broad statement of U.S. and British war aims.

Impact of Atlantic Charter:

• The Atlantic Charter, while not precipitating American involvement in World War II, represented a significant step by Great Britain and the United States. It was not a formal treaty but rather a statement of shared ethics and intent, aiming to offer hope to occupied countries and promote a world organization based on international morality.

The charter successfully provided moral support to Allied forces and sent a powerful message to the Axis powers. Additionally:

• The Allied nations adopted the principles of the Atlantic Charter, establishing a common purpose.
• The Atlantic Charter marked an important initial step toward the formation of the United Nations.
• It was perceived by the Axis powers as the beginning of the United States and Great Britain alliance, strengthening the militaristic government in Japan.
• Although the charter did not pledge military support for the war in Europe, it signaled the United States as a major player on the world stage, a role it would solidify after World War II in efforts to rebuild a war-torn Europe.

On January 1, 1942, representatives of 26 nations at war with the Axis powers gathered in Washington to sign the “Declaration by United Nations,” endorsing the Atlantic Charter. This document committed the signatory governments to maximum war efforts and prohibited them from making a separate peace.

• The name “United Nations,” coined by President Roosevelt, was first used in this declaration. A significant change from the Atlantic Charter was the inclusion of a provision for religious freedom, approved by Stalin after Roosevelt’s insistence. By March 1, 1945, 21 additional states had signed the declaration.
• During the war, the term “United Nations” became official for the Allies. To join, countries had to sign the Declaration and declare war on the Axis powers.
• In summary, the journey towards the establishment of the United Nations was marked by a series of international efforts and agreements aimed at fostering global cooperation and addressing conflicts, ultimately leading to the formation of a new world order after World War II.

Other Conferences and Declarations

• In August 1943, during the Quebec Conference, the US Secretary of State and the British Foreign Secretary agreed to draft a declaration calling for “a general international organization” based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all nations.
• A formal declaration was later issued following a Foreign Ministers Conference in Moscow in October 1943.

Tehran Meet:

• In November 1943, President Franklin D. Roosevelt proposed an international organization during a meeting with Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin in Tehran. This organization would have an assembly of all member states and a 10-member executive committee to address social and economic issues.
• Roosevelt also suggested that the United States, Great Britain, the Soviet Union, and China would act as “the four policemen” to enforce peace.
• During this period, Allied representatives established several task-oriented organizations, including:
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  • Food and Agricultural Organization—May 1943
  • United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration—November 1943
  • United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization—April 1944
  • International Monetary Fund and World Bank—July 1944
  • International Civil Aviation Organization—November 1944

Founding the UN 1945

• In 1945, representatives from 50 countries convened in San Francisco at the United Nations Conference on International Organization to draft the United Nations Charter.
• The delegates based their discussions on proposals developed by representatives from China, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States during the Dumbarton Oaks Conference in 1944.
• The Charter was signed on 26 June 1945, by the representatives of the 50 countries. Poland, although not present at the Conference, signed later and became one of the original 51 Member States.
• The United Nations officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, when the Charter was ratified by China, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, the United States, and a majority of other signatories. This date is now celebrated as United Nations Day.
• The first meetings of the General Assembly and the Security Council took place in Central Hall Westminster in London, starting on 6 January 1946.
• The General Assembly selected New York City as the site for the United Nations headquarters, which, like the UN headquarters in Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi, is designated as international territory.
• Trygve Lie, the Norwegian Foreign Minister, was elected as the first UN Secretary-General.

Membership

• Membership in the United Nations is open to all peace-loving states that accept the obligations of the Charter and are willing and able to carry them out.
• The General Assembly, upon the recommendation of the Security Council, decides on the admission of new members.
• There are also two non-member observer states in the United Nations General Assembly: the Holy See and the State of Palestine.

The Structure of the United Nations Organization

• The Trusteeship Council, established to oversee trust territories and prepare them for self-government and independence, became inactive in 1994 with the independence of Palau, the last remaining UN trustee territory. By 1994, all trust territories had achieved self-government or independence.

Economic and Social Council:

• The Economic and Social Council, created by the UN Charter, coordinates the economic and social work of the United Nations and its specialized agencies. Voting in the Council is by simple majority, with each member having one vote.

International Criminal Court:

• The International Criminal Court (ICC), located in The Hague, Netherlands, is an intergovernmental organization and international tribunal that prosecutes individuals for international crimes such as genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and crimes of aggression.
• The ICC began functioning on 1 July 2002, when the Rome Statute entered into force. The Rome Statute is a multilateral treaty that serves as the ICC's foundational document.

UN Headquarters and Major Agencies:

• Four of the five principal organs of the United Nations are located at the main UN Headquarters in New York City. The International Court of Justice is in The Hague, while other major agencies are based in UN offices in Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi.
• The six official languages of the United Nations are:Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish.
• Based on the Convention on the Privileges and Immunity of the United Nations, the UN and its agencies are immune from the laws of the countries where they operate, ensuring the UN's impartiality.

Specialized Agencies:

• The UN Charter allows each primary organ of the UN to establish specialized agencies to carry out its duties. These include organizations like the International Atomic Energy Agency, Food and Agriculture Organization, UNESCO, World Bank, and World Health Organization (WHO).
• The UN primarily conducts its humanitarian work through these specialized agencies.

Noblemaire Principle:

• The Noblemaire principle requires international organizations, including those in the UN system, to remunerate staff equally for work of equal value, regardless of pay differences among member states.
• It also mandates the ability to recruit and retain staff from all member countries.
• However, the World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF), and their affiliated organizations have opted out of the UN common system of Salaries and Allowances.

Differences between the UN and the League of Nations

• The UN has been more successful

There are some important differences which have tended to make the UN a more successful body than the League.

• The UN spends much more time and resources on economic and social matters and its scope is much wider than that of the League. All the specialized agencies, with the exception of the International Labour Organization (founded in 1919), were set up in 1945 or later.
• The UN is committed to safeguarding individual human rights, which the League did not get involved in.
• Changes in the procedures of the General Assembly and the Security Council (especially the ‘Uniting for Peace’ resolution), and the increased power and prestige of the Secretary-General, have enabled the UN, on occasion, to take more decisive action than the League ever achieved.
• The UN has a much wider membership and is therefore more of a genuine world organization than the League, with all the extra prestige that this entails.
• Both the USA and the USSR were founder-members of the UN, whereas the USA never joined the League.
• Between 1963 and 1968 no fewer than 43 new members joined the UN, mainly the emerging states of Africa and Asia. Later, many of the former member states of the USSR joined and now membership has reached 193; the League never had more than 50 members.

Some of the weaknesses of the League remain:

• Any one of the five permanent members of the Security Council can use its power of veto to prevent decisive action being taken.
• Like the League, the UN has no permanent army of its own and has to use forces belonging to its member states.

How successful had the UN been as a peacekeeping organization?

• Although it has had mixed success, it is probably fair to say that the UN has been more successful than the League in its peacekeeping efforts, especially in crises which did not directly involve the interests of the great powers, such as the civil war in the Congo (1960-4) and the dispute between the Netherlands and Indonesia over West New Guinea.
• On the other hand, it has often been just as ineffective as the League in situations – such as the Hungarian rising of 1956 and the 1968 Czech crisis– where the interests of one of the great powers – in this case the USSR – seemed to be threatened, and where the great power decided to ignore or defy the UN.
• With an increasing Third World presence and the failure of UN mediation in conflicts in the Middle East, Vietnam, and Kashmir, the UN increasingly shifted its attention to its ostensibly secondary goals of economic development and cultural exchange. By the 1970s, the UN budget for social and economic development was far greater than its peacekeeping budget.

UN’s varying degrees of success can be seen from the following major disputes in which it has been involved.

• West New Guinea (1946): In 1946 the UN helped to arrange independence from Holland for the Dutch East Indies, which became Indonesia. However, no agreement was reached about the future of West New Guinea (West Irian), which was claimed by both countries. In 1961 fighting broke out; after U Thant (Secretary General of UN) had appealed to both sides to reopen negotiations, it was agreed (1962) that the territory should become part of Indonesia. The transfer was organized and policed by a UN force. In this case the UN played a vital role in getting negotiations off the ground, though it did not itself make the decision about West Irian’s future.
• Palestine (1947)": The dispute between Jews and Arabs in Palestine was brought before the UN in 1947. After an investigation, the UN decided to divide Palestine, setting up the Jewish state of Israel. This was one of the UN’s most controversial decisions, and it was not accepted by the majority of Arabs. The UN was unable to prevent a series of wars between Israel and various Arab states (1948-9, 1967 and 1973), though it did useful work arranging ceasefires and providing supervisory forces, while the UN Relief and Works Agency cared for the Arab refugees.
• The Korean War (1950-3): This was the only occasion on which the UN was able to take decisive action in a crisis directly involving the interests of one of the superpowers. When South Korea was invaded by communist North Korea in June 1950, the Security Council immediately passed a resolution condemning North Korea, and called on member states to send help to the South. However, this was possible only because of the temporary absence of the Russian delegates, who would have vetoed the resolution if they had not been boycotting Security Council meetings in protest at the failure to allow communist China to join the UN. Troops of 16 countries were able to repel the invasion and preserve the frontier between the two Koreas along the 38th parallel. Though this was claimed by the West as a great UN success, it was in fact very much an American operation: The vast majority of troops and the Commander-in-Chief, General MacArthur, were American, and the US government had already decided to intervene with force the day before the Security Council decision was taken. Only the absence of the Russians enabled the USA to turn it into a UN operation. This was a situation not likely to be repeated, since the USSR would take good care to be present at all future Council sessions. The Korean War had important results for the future of the UN: One was the passing of the ‘Uniting for Peace‘ resolution, which would permit a Security Council veto to be bypassed by a General Assembly vote. Another was the launching of a bitter attack by the Russians on Secretary-General Trygve Lie for what they considered to be his biased role in the crisis. His position soon became impossible and he eventually agreed to retire early, to be replaced by Dag Hammarskjold.
• The Suez Crisis (1956): This arguably showed the UN at its best. When President Nasser of Egypt suddenly nationalized the Suez Canal, many of whose shares were owned by the British and French, both these powers protested strongly and sent troops ‘to protect their interests’. At the same time the Israelis invaded Egypt from the east; the real aim of all three states was to bring down President Nasser. A Security Council resolution condemning force was vetoed by Britain and France, whereupon the General Assembly, by a majority of 64 votes to 5, condemned the invasions and called for a withdrawal of troops. In view of the weight of opinion against them, the aggressors agreed to withdraw, provided the UN ensured a reasonable settlement over the canal and kept the Arabs and Israelis from slaughtering each other. A UN force of 5000, made up of troops from ten different countries, moved in, while the British, French and Israelis went home. The prestige of the UN and of Dag Hammarskjold, who handled the operation with considerable skill, was greatly enhanced, though American and Russian pressure was also important in bringing about a ceasefire. However, the UN was not so successful in the 1967 Arab-Israeli conflict.
• The Hungarian Rising (1956): This took place at the same time as the Suez Crisis, and showed the UN at its most ineffective. When the Hungarians tried to exert their independence from Russian control, Soviet troops entered Hungary to crush the revolt. The Hungarian government appealed to the UN, but the Russians vetoed a Security Council resolution calling for a withdrawal of their forces. The General Assembly passed the same resolution and set up a committee to investigate the problem; but the Russians refused to co-operate with the committee and no progress could be made.
• Civil war in the Congo (1960-4): Here the UN mounted its most complex operation to date, except for Korea. When the Congo (known as Zaire since 1971) dissolved into chaos immediately after gaining independence, a UN force numbering over 20 000 at its largest managed to restore some sort of precarious order. A special UN Congo Fund was set up to help with the recovery and development of the ravaged country. But the financial cost was so high that the UN was brought close to bankruptcy, especially when the USSR, France and Belgium refused to pay their contributions towards the cost of the operations, because they disapproved of the way the UN had handled the situation. The war also cost the life of Dag Hammarskjold, who was killed in a plane crash in the Congo.
• Cyprus: A British colony since 1878, the island was granted independence in 1960. In 1963 civil war broke out between the Greeks, who made up about 80 per cent of the population, and the Turks. A UN peacekeeping force arrived in March 1964; an uneasy peace was restored, but it needed 3000 UN troops permanently stationed in Cyprus to prevent Greeks and Turks tearing each other apart. In 1974 the Greek Cypriots tried to unite the island with Greece. This prompted the Turkish Cypriots, helped by invading Turkish army troops, to seize the north of the island for their own territory. They went on to expel all Greeks. The UN condemned the invasion but was unable to remove the Turks. UN forces did at least achieve a ceasefire and are still policing the frontier between Greeks and Turks. However, the UN has still not been successful in finding an acceptable constitution or any other compromise.
• Kashmir: In Kashmir the UN found itself in a similar situation to the one in Cyprus. After 1947, this large province, lying between India and Pakistan was claimed by both states. Already in 1948 the UN had negotiated a ceasefire after fighting broke out. At this point the Indians were (legally) ruling the southern part of Kashmir, the Pakistanis were occupying the northern part, and for the next 16 years the UN policed the ceasefire line between the two zones. When Pakistani troops invaded the Indian zone in 1965, a short war developed, but once again the UN successfully intervened and hostilities ceased. There seemed little prospect of the UN or any other agency finding a permanent solution.
• The Czechoslovak crisis (1968): This was almost a repeat performance of the Hungarian rising 12 years earlier. When the Czechs showed what Moscow considered to be too much independence, Russian and other Warsaw Pact troops were sent in to enforce obedience to the USSR. The Security Council tried to pass a motion condemning this action, but the Russians vetoed it, claiming that the Czech government had asked for their intervention. Although the Czechs denied this, there was nothing the UN could do in view of the USSR’s refusal to cooperate.
• The Lebanon: While civil war was raging in the Lebanon (1975-87) matters were further complicated by a frontier dispute in the south of the country between Lebanese Christians (aided by the Israelis) and Palestinians. In March 1978 the Israelis invaded South Lebanon in order to destroy Palestinian guerrilla bases from which attacks were being made on northern Israel. In June 1978 the Israelis agreed to withdraw, provided the UN assumed responsibility for policing the frontier area. The United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL), consisting of about 7000 troops, was sent to South Lebanon. It supervised the Israeli withdrawal and had some success in maintaining relative peace in the area; but it was a constant struggle against frontier violations, assassinations, terrorism and the seizing of hostages. During the early 1990’s a new enemy began to harass Israel from bases in South Lebanon: this was the Muslim Shi’ite group known as Hezbollah, which, according to the Israeli government, was backed by Iran and Syria. In retaliation the Israelis launched a major attack on South Lebanon (April 1996) and occupied most of the region until 1999. Once again UNIFIL helped to supervise an Israeli withdrawal. The region seemed calmer than for many years. UNIFIL worked hard to strengthen the Lebanese army, providing training and equipment. Eventually the two forces were able to work together to maintain stability, though a permanent solution still seemed far off. In July 2006 Hezbollah-Israel conflict started again. UN succeeded in arranging a ceasefire.
• The Iran-Iraq War (1980-8): The UN was successful in bringing an end to the long-drawn-out war between Iran and Iraq. After years of attempting to mediate, the UN at last negotiated a ceasefire, though admittedly they were helped by the fact that both sides were close to exhaustion.

UN Peacekeeping Since The End of The Cold War

The end of the Cold War did not bring about the end of potential conflicts. Several disputes that had originated long before continued to persist, and regions like the Middle East remained volatile, with increasing issues in Southeast Asia and Africa. In response to this ongoing instability, the United Nations (UN) significantly expanded its peacekeeping responsibilities, undertaking more missions in the decade following the Cold War than in the previous 40 years combined.

Between 1988 and 2000:

• The number of adopted Security Council resolutions more than doubled.
• The peacekeeping budget increased more than tenfold.

During the period from 1990 to 2003, the UN conducted over 30 peacekeeping operations. At its peak in the mid-1990s, there were more than 80,000 troops from 77 countries actively involved in peacekeeping efforts.

• In the late 1990s and 2000s, UN-authorized international interventions took on a wider variety of forms. For example, the UN mission in the Sierra Leone Civil War (1991–2002) was complemented by British Royal Marines, and the invasion of Afghanistan in 2001 was overseen by NATO. The UN played a crucial role in negotiating the end of the Salvadoran Civil War, launching a successful peacekeeping mission in Namibia, and overseeing democratic elections in post-apartheid South Africa and post-Khmer Rouge Cambodia. In 1991, the UN authorized a US-led coalition to repel the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait.
• However, Brian Urquhart, who served as Under-Secretary-General from 1971 to 1985, later described the optimism surrounding these successes as a “false renaissance” for the UN, given the more challenging missions that followed.

The Gulf War (1991)

• UN action during the Gulf War of 1991 was impressive. When Saddam Hussein of Iraq sent his troops to invade and capture the tiny, but extremely rich, neighbouring state of Kuwait (August 1990), the UN Security Council warned him to withdraw or face the consequences. When he refused, a large UN force was sent to Saudi Arabia. In a short and decisive campaign, Iraqi troops were driven out, suffering heavy losses, and Kuwait was liberated.
• However, critics of the UN complained that Kuwait had received help only because the West needed her oil supplies; other small nations, which had no value to the West, had received no help when they were invaded by larger neighbours (for example East Timor, taken over by Indonesia in 1975).

Peacekeeping Operations in Cambodia:

• Problems in Cambodia dragged on for nearly two decades, but eventually, the UN was able to arrange a solution. In 1975, the Khmer Rouge, a communist guerrilla force led by Pol Pot, seized power from the right-wing government of Prince Sihanouk. Over the next three years, Pol Pot’s brutal regime slaughtered about a third of the population until a Vietnamese army invaded the country in 1978. The Vietnamese forces drove out the Khmer Rouge and set up a new government.
• Initially, the UN, prompted by the USA, condemned this action, although many believed that Vietnam had done the Cambodian people a great service by removing the cruel Pol Pot regime. However, this was part of the Cold War dynamics, where any action by Vietnam, an ally of the USSR, would be condemned by the USA.
• The end of the Cold War enabled the UN to organize and police a solution. Vietnamese forces were withdrawn in September 1989, and after a long period of negotiations and persuasion, elections were held in June 1993, leading to a gradual stabilization of the country.

Peacekeeping Operations in Mozambique:

• Mozambique, which gained independence from Portugal in 1975, was torn by civil war for many years. By 1990, the country was in ruins, and both sides were exhausted. Although a ceasefire agreement had been signed in Rome in October 1992, facilitated by the Roman Catholic Church and the Italian government, it was not holding. There were numerous violations of the ceasefire, making it impossible to hold elections in such an atmosphere.
• The UN became fully involved, implementing a program of demobilizing and disarming the various armies, distributing humanitarian relief, and preparing for elections. These elections took place successfully in October 1994, marking a significant achievement for the UN in stabilizing the country.

Peacekeeping Operations in Somalia:

• Somalia disintegrated into civil war in 1991 when the dictator Siad Barre was overthrown. A power struggle developed between rival supporters of Generals Aidid and Ali Mohammed, leading to a chaotic situation where food supplies and communications broke down, and thousands of refugees fled into Kenya.
• The Organization of African Unity (OAU) requested UN help, and a contingent of 37,000 UN troops, primarily American, arrived in December 1992 to safeguard aid and restore law and order by disarming the warlords. However, the warlords, particularly Aidid, were unwilling to be disarmed, and UN troops began to suffer casualties.
• The Americans withdrew their troops in March 1994, and the remaining UN forces were withdrawn in March 1995, leaving the warlords to continue their conflict. This was a humiliating backdown for the UN, which had set itself an impossible task from the outset—disarming two powerful armies determined to continue fighting while also managing a humanitarian relief program.
• During this time, the UN took no action in the civil war and genocide occurring in Rwanda in 1994. The United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda failed to intervene in the Rwandan Genocide due to indecision within the Security Council.
• UN military interventions were most likely to succeed when, as in Korea (1950-1953) and the Gulf War (1991), UN troops actively supported one side against the other.

Peacekeeping Operations in Bosnia:

• During the civil war between Bosnian Muslims and Serbs, the UN failed to deploy enough troops to enforce law and order. This inadequacy was partly due to the reluctance of both the European Community and the USA to become heavily involved. The UN faced further humiliation in July 1995 when it was unable to prevent Serb forces from capturing two towns, Srebrenica and Zepa, which the Security Council had designated as safe areas for Muslims.
• The UN's helplessness was starkly highlighted when the Serbs went on to murder around 8,000 Muslim men in Srebrenica. This failure underscored the challenges and limitations faced by the UN in carrying out effective peacekeeping operations in complex and volatile conflict situations.

Peacekeeping Operations in Iraq:

• In March 2003, the USA and Britain invaded Iraq, claiming their intention was to eliminate weapons of mass destruction and liberate the Iraqi people from Saddam Hussein's oppressive regime. UN weapons inspectors had been searching for these weapons but found nothing significant. Despite this, the invasion proceeded without UN Security Council authorization.
• The USA and Britain had attempted to secure a resolution from the Security Council approving military action, but France, Russia, China, and Germany wanted to give Saddam more time to cooperate with the weapons inspectors. When it became clear that France and Russia would veto any resolution supporting military action, the USA and Britain decided to proceed unilaterally.
• The justification for their action was that Saddam's violations of previous UN resolutions warranted military intervention. This unilateral action was a severe blow to the UN's prestige. Secretary-General Kofi Annan stated that this decision brought the UN to “a fork in the road.” Until that point, any state intending to use force beyond self-defense needed Security Council authorization, as outlined in Article 51 of the UN Charter.
• Ban Ki-moon, the eighth Secretary-General, led the UN in intervening with peacekeepers in crises like the War in Darfur (Sudan) and the Kivu conflict (Democratic Republic of Congo). The UN also sent observers and chemical weapons inspectors to the Syrian Civil War. However, an internal review in 2013 of UN actions during the final battles of the Sri Lankan Civil War in 2009 concluded that the organization had experienced “systemic failure.”

Assessment of the United Nations Organization

Evaluations of the UN's effectiveness have been mixed. Some commentators believe the organization to be an important force for peace and human development, while others have called the organization ineffective, corrupt, or biased. The UN has been in existence for well over half a century, but it is still nowhere near achieving its basic aims. The world is still full of economic and social problems; acts of aggression and wars continue. A number of agencies and individuals associated with the UN have won the Nobel Peace Prize in recognition of their work. Two Secretaries-General, Dag Hammarskjöld and Kofi Annan, were each awarded the prize.

Lack of a Permanent UN Army:

• The UN's system has weaknesses that contribute to its failures.
• One significant issue is the absence of a permanent UN army, which makes it challenging to enforce decisions, especially against powerful states prioritizing self-interest.
• When persuasion and global opinion fail, the UN relies on member nations to provide troops for enforcement.
• Historical instances, such as the USSR ignoring UN demands for troop withdrawals from Hungary in 1956 and Afghanistan in 1980, highlight this limitation.
• UN interventions in Somalia (1992-1995) and Bosnia (1992-1995) demonstrated the organization's inability to stop conflicts when the parties involved were not willing to cease hostilities.
• The USA and Britain attacking Iraq in 2003 without UN authorization further exemplified the UN's lack of power, particularly as the USA was the only global superpower at the time.
• If potential aggressors knew that their forces would face a UN armed force equipped and authorized to fight, it could deter conflicts. For instance, a UN force deployed on the Kuwait-Iraq border in 1990 or the Croatia-Serbia border in 1991 might have prevented hostilities.

When Should the UN Intervene?

• Determining the right time for UN involvement in disputes is problematic.
• At times, the UN hesitates too long, making resolution more challenging, as seen during the Vietnam and Angola wars.
• This indecision led some states to prefer regional organizations like NATO for peacekeeping, resolving many agreements without UN involvement.
• Instances like the end of the Vietnam War, the Camp David peace between Israel and Egypt in 1979, and the Rhodesia/Zimbabwe settlement in 1979 occurred without significant UN input.
• Critics argued that the UN was becoming irrelevant, merely serving as a platform for propaganda speeches.
• The UN Security Council's veto power held by permanent members also hindered decisive action.
• Although the 'Uniting for Peace' resolution mitigated this to some extent, the veto still caused delays in taking action.

The Increasing Membership of the UN from the 1970s:

• In the 1970s, the growing membership of the UN introduced new challenges.
• By 1970, nations from the Third World (Africa and Asia) formed a clear majority.
• As these nations collaborated more closely, they could ensure the passage of their resolutions, making it increasingly difficult for both Western and Communist blocs to push through their proposals in the General Assembly.
• The Western nations criticized the Third World bloc for being overly 'political,' which meant acting in ways the West disapproved of.
• For instance, in 1974, UNESCO passed resolutions condemning 'colonialism' and 'imperialism.'
• In 1979, when the Western bloc introduced a General Assembly motion condemning terrorism, it was defeated by the Arab states and their allies.
• Friction peaked in 1983 at the UNESCO General Congress.
• Many Western nations, including the USA, accused UNESCO of being ineffective, wasteful, and having unacceptable political objectives.
• The tipping point was a proposal by some communist countries for the internal licensing of foreign journalists. The USA argued that this would enable member states to effectively censor each other's media organizations.
• As a result, the USA announced its withdrawal from UNESCO on January 1, 1985, claiming it had become 'hostile to the basic institutions of a free society, particularly a free market and a free press.'
• Britain and Singapore followed suit in 1986 for similar reasons. Britain rejoined in 1997, and the USA in 2002, but the USA withdrew again in 2019, accusing UNESCO of anti-Israel bias.

Waste of Effort and Resources Among Agencies:

• Some UN agencies appear to duplicate each other's work, leading to criticism of inefficiency.
• The WHO(World Health Organization) and the FAO(Food and Agriculture Organization) have been specifically criticized for overlapping responsibilities.
• The FAO faced criticism in 1984 for spending too much on administration and insufficiently on improving agricultural systems.
• GATT(General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) and UNCTAD(United Nations Conference on Trade and Development) seem to be working at cross purposes.
• GATT aims to eliminate tariffs and other trade restrictions, while UNCTAD seeks preferential treatment for the products of Third World countries.

Shortage of Funds:

• The UN has consistently faced a shortage of funds throughout its history.
• The vast scope of its work necessitates enormous financial resources to support its operations.
• The UN relies entirely on contributions from member states to fund its activities.
• Each state pays a regular annual contribution based on its overall wealth and ability to pay.
• In addition, member states contribute a proportion of the cost for each peacekeeping operation and are expected to assist with the expenses of special agencies.
• At times, many member states have refused to pay their dues, either due to their own financial difficulties or in protest against certain UN policies.
• In 1986, for instance, the USA withheld over $100 million until the UN reformed its budgeting system and curtailed perceived extravagance.
• The US aimed to give more say to major contributors in how funds were spent, but most smaller nations rejected this as undemocratic.
• In 1987, reforms were implemented to grant main financial contributors greater control over spending, leading to an improvement in the financial situation.
• However, expenses soared in the early 1990s as the UN became involved in various new crises, including in the Middle East (Gulf War),Yugoslavia, and Somalia.
• In August 1993, Secretary-General Dr. Boutros-Ghali revealed that many states were significantly in arrears with their payments.
• He warned that unless there was an immediate cash influx from the wealthiest states, all UN peacekeeping operations would be at risk.
• Nevertheless, the Americans and Europeans felt they already contributed too much.
• The USA, EU, and Japan covered three-quarters of the expenses, and there was a belief that many other wealthy states could afford to contribute more than they did.

Other Problems:

• Since its inception, there have been numerous calls for reform within the United Nations, but achieving consensus on how to proceed has been challenging.
• Some advocate for a more powerful and effective UN role in global affairs, while others prefer a focus on humanitarian work.
• There have been many suggestions to expand the UN Security Council's membership, change the methods for electing the UN Secretary-General, and establish a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly.
• The most persistent divide in opinions about the UN is the North-South split between wealthier Northern nations and developing Southern nations.
• Southern nations generally support a stronger UN with an empowered General Assembly, giving them more influence in global matters.
• Northern nations, on the other hand, favor a more hands-off UN that prioritizes transnational issues like terrorism.
• After World War II, the French Committee of National Liberation was initially not recognized by the US as France's government and was excluded from the conferences that established the new organization.
• Charles de Gaulle, the future president of France, criticized the UN, calling it a machin(“contraption”) and doubting that a global security alliance would effectively maintain world peace, preferring bilateral defense treaties between countries.
• Accusations of bureaucratic inefficiency, waste, and corruption have also been directed at the UN.
• In the 1990s, the US withheld dues citing these issues and only resumed payments on the condition of significant reforms.
• In 1994, the Office of Internal Oversight Services(OIOS) was established to monitor efficiency within the UN.
• In 2004, the UN faced allegations of corruption within the Oil-for-Food Programme, where Iraq was allowed to trade oil for basic needs to alleviate the impact of sanctions.
• Despite the criticisms, it would be inaccurate to dismiss the UN as a failure. The world would likely be a much worse place without it.
• The UN provides a platform where representatives from around 190 nations can convene and communicate, giving even the smallest nations a voice in global discussions.
• While it has not stopped wars, the UN has been effective in hastening the end of some conflicts and preventing further disputes.
• UN peacekeeping forces and refugee agencies have averted significant human suffering and bloodshed.
• As of 2019, there are around 110,000 UN peacekeepers and 14 peacekeeping missions actively deployed worldwide.
• The UN has made substantial contributions by investigating and publicizing human rights abuses under oppressive regimes, such as in Chile and Zaire. This has gradually influenced governments by applying international pressure.
• Perhaps its most significant success has been fostering international cooperation on economic, social, and technical matters.
• Millions of individuals, particularly in less affluent countries, have benefited from the efforts of UN agencies.
• The UN remains engaged in contemporary issues, with agencies like UNESCO, ILO(International Labour Organization), and WHO(World Health Organization) collaborating on projects to assist drug addicts and organizing conferences on AIDS to coordinate the fight against this devastating epidemic, especially in Africa.

The Future of the UN:

• Many believed that the end of the Cold War would lead to the resolution of most global issues. However, this did not materialize.
• Throughout the 1990s, there appeared to be an increase in conflicts, and global stability seemed to be declining.
• This underscored the UN's crucial role as an international peacekeeper, with many desiring reforms to strengthen the organization.
• Kofi Annan, who became Secretary-General in December 1996, was highly regarded for his leadership in UN peacekeeping operations.
• He recognized the UN's weaknesses and was committed to addressing them.
• He initiated a comprehensive review of all UN peace operations, leading to recommendations in 2000 for the UN to maintain permanent brigade-sized forces of 5,000 troops ready for immediate deployment under professional military leadership.
• The rise of terrorism, particularly after the September 2001 attacks in New York, prompted Annan to propose the Agenda for Further Change in September 2002.
• This plan aimed to strengthen the UN's role in combating terrorism and streamline its cumbersome budget system.
• A significant challenge since the Cold War and the USA's emergence as the sole superpower has been the relationship between the UN and the USA.
• Tensions escalated when the Bush administration rejected several international agreements, such as the 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, and the Rome Statute for the UN International Criminal Court.
• These tensions peaked in March 2003 when the US, with the UK's support, decided to invade Iraq without UN authorization, contrary to the wishes of most UN members.
• The USA's overwhelming power allowed it to disregard the UN and act independently unless the UN aligned with its interests.
• One American strategy to influence the UN was ensuring the appointment of a sympathetic Secretary-General.