UPSC Mains Answer PYQ 2016: History Paper 2 (Section- A) | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

SECTION - A

Q1:
(a) Comment on the French ambition of building a territorial empire in India.
Ans:
Introduction: 
The French ambition of building a territorial empire in India during the 18th century was part of European colonial competition in the region, particularly with the British East India Company. This ambition was characterized by strategic alliances, military engagements, and efforts to establish territorial control.
French Strateg
ies and Efforts:

1. Alliances with Indian Princes:
   

   • Explanation: The French established alliances with various Indian princely states to gain territorial footholds and political influence.

   • Example: The alliance with Hyderabad under the Nizam and with the rulers of Mysore and Tanjore strengthened French positions in South India.

2. Establishment of Territories:
   

   • Explanation: French efforts included establishing fortified settlements and trading posts along the Indian coastline and hinterlands.

   • Example: Pondicherry emerged as a major French settlement, serving as a political and commercial hub in competition with British-held Madras.

Military and Political Engagements:

1. Conflict with the British:
   

   • Explanation: The French engaged in multiple military conflicts with the British East India Company for control over Indian territories.

   • Example: The Anglo-French Wars in India, such as the Carnatic Wars (1746-1763), saw both powers vying for dominance, influencing local politics and alliances.

2. Impact on Indian Politics:
   

   • Explanation: French involvement in Indian politics and conflicts altered local power dynamics and influenced diplomatic strategies of Indian rulers.

   • Example: The support of French-trained troops and military advisors by Indian rulers like Hyder Ali of Mysore strengthened their military capabilities and political influence.

Conclusion: 
The French ambition to build a territorial empire in India was driven by strategic geopolitical interests, economic objectives, and competition with the British. Despite initial successes and alliances with Indian states, French efforts were ultimately overshadowed by British military supremacy and the Company's more extensive territorial control. The French legacy in India, centered around Pondicherry and cultural exchanges, persists as a reminder of their brief but impactful presence in the Indian subcontinent during the era of European colonial expansion.

(b) After the Battle of Plassey, how did India transit from the medieval to the modern age ?
Ans:
Introduction: 
The Battle of Plassey in 1757 marked a significant turning point in Indian history, where the British East India Company's victory over the Nawab of Bengal initiated a transition from the medieval to the modern age in India, characterized by profound political, economic, and social changes.
Political Transformation:

1. British Hegemony:

   • Explanation: The Battle of Plassey established British dominance in Bengal, leading to subsequent British control over large parts of India.

   • Example: The Treaty of Allahabad (1765) granted the Company the diwani rights (right to collect revenue) of Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha, laying the foundation for British political ascendancy.

2. Expansion and Consolidation:
   

   • Explanation: The Company expanded its territorial control through alliances, wars, and diplomacy with Indian princely states and rulers.

   • Example: Subsequent battles and treaties, like the Treaty of Buxar (1764), extended British influence over the Mughal Empire and other regions.

Economic Transformations:

1. Commercial Exploitation:
   

   • Explanation: The British exploited Indian resources and markets for commercial gain, transforming India into a supplier of raw materials and a market for British manufactured goods.

   • Example: The establishment of monopolies, trade regulations, and the introduction of new revenue systems facilitated British economic control.

2. Industrialization Impact:
   

   • Explanation: British industrialization and technological advancements influenced Indian economy and society, introducing new industries and methods of production.

   • Example: The decline of traditional Indian industries like textiles due to British competition and policies, such as the destruction of local handicrafts.

Social Changes:

1. Cultural Interactions:
   

   • Explanation: British rule facilitated cultural exchanges and interactions, influencing education, administration, and social norms.

   • Example: The introduction of Western education and legal systems, alongside missionary activities, brought about cultural shifts.

2. Resistance and Reform Movements:
   

   • Explanation: Indian responses to British rule included both armed resistance and reform movements seeking socio-political change.

   • Example: The Indian Rebellion of 1857, also known as the First War of Independence, reflected widespread opposition to British policies and cultural imperialism.

Conclusion: 
The Battle of Plassey and subsequent British control marked a pivotal transition from the medieval to the modern age in India. Political dominance, economic exploitation, cultural exchanges, and socio-political movements defined this transformative period, shaping India's trajectory towards modernization and eventual independence. The impact of British colonial rule continues to influence India's socio-economic and political landscape, underscoring the complexities and legacies of colonialism in Indian history.

(c) Do you agree with the view that the growth of vernacular literature in the 19th and the 20th centuries paved the way for social reform and cultural revival in India ?
Ans:
Introduction: 
The growth of vernacular literature in the 19th and 20th centuries played a crucial role in fostering social reform and cultural revival in India. This period witnessed a resurgence of literary activities in regional languages, challenging colonial narratives and promoting indigenous cultural identity.
Impact of Vernacular Literature:

1. Promotion of Social Reform:
   

   • Explanation: Vernacular literature addressed social issues such as caste discrimination, women's rights, and religious reform, catalyzing social movements.

   • Example: Writers like Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay (Bengali) and Mahatma Phule (Marathi) advocated for social equality and education through their works.

2. Cultural Assertion and Identity:
   

   • Explanation: Vernacular literature celebrated Indian traditions, folklore, and history, fostering a sense of cultural pride and nationalism.

   • Example: Rabindranath Tagore's works in Bengali revived classical music and dance forms, promoting cultural revival.

Role in National Awakening:

1. Political Awakening:
   

   • Explanation: Vernacular literature contributed to political consciousness and anti-colonial sentiments, inspiring nationalist movements.

   • Example: The poetry of Subramania Bharati (Tamil) and Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay's novel "Anandamath" (Bengali) inspired nationalist fervor.

2. Educational Empowerment:
   

   • Explanation: Vernacular literature expanded access to education among the masses, empowering them to challenge social norms and colonial oppression.

   • Example: The spread of novels, poetry, and essays in regional languages facilitated intellectual discourse and progressive thought.

Conclusion: 
The growth of vernacular literature in the 19th and 20th centuries was instrumental in promoting social reform, cultural revival, and fostering nationalist sentiments in India. Writers and intellectuals used regional languages to challenge colonial narratives, advocate for social justice, and celebrate indigenous culture. This literary resurgence not only contributed to the broader socio-cultural transformation but also played a pivotal role in shaping India's journey towards independence and modernization. The legacy of vernacular literature continues to influence contemporary Indian society, emphasizing the enduring impact of literature as a catalyst for social change and cultural revival.

(d) "The Mutiny of 1857 was much more than a Mutiny of Sepoys and much less than a National Rebellion." Comment.
Ans:
Introduction: 
The Mutiny of 1857, often referred to as the First War of Independence or the Indian Rebellion of 1857, holds a complex historical significance in India's struggle against British colonial rule. It encompassed diverse motivations and participants, reflecting a blend of military revolt and broader socio-political discontent.
Much More Than a Mutiny of Sepoys:

1. Military Revolt:
   

   • Explanation: The immediate trigger was discontent among Indian soldiers (sepoys) in the British East India Company's army, sparked by issues such as the use of animal fat in cartridges.

   • Example: The rebellion began with mutinies in Meerut and subsequently spread to other military stations and cities like Delhi and Lucknow.

2. Broader Socio-Political Causes:
   

   • Explanation: Beyond military grievances, the rebellion was fueled by widespread dissatisfaction among Indian rulers, intellectuals, and peasants against British policies.

   • Example: Economic exploitation, resentment against land reforms, and cultural disrespect contributed to popular support for the rebellion.

Much Less Than a National Rebellion:

1. Limited Coordination:
   

   • Explanation: The rebellion lacked centralized leadership and coordination, with various regions and princely states acting independently.

   • Example: While some rulers like Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi and Nana Sahib of Kanpur participated actively, others remained neutral or collaborated with the British.

2. Regional and Religious Divides:
   

   • Explanation: The uprising did not unify all regions or communities equally, as socio-religious differences and regional priorities influenced participation.

   • Example: Muslim and Hindu grievances sometimes diverged, impacting the cohesion and goals of the rebellion.

Conclusion: 
The Mutiny of 1857 was a pivotal event in India's struggle against British colonialism, encompassing elements of military revolt and broader socio-political discontent. While it began as a mutiny of sepoys, it quickly evolved into a widespread rebellion involving diverse sections of society. However, due to its fragmented nature and varying regional participation, it fell short of achieving national unity or sustained coordinated resistance. Nevertheless, the rebellion left a lasting impact on India's nationalist consciousness, laying the groundwork for future anti-colonial movements and eventual independence.

(e) Explain "Constructive Swadeshi" characterised by atmashakti (self-reliance), which propelled the Swadeshi Movement in Bengal.
Ans:
Introduction: 
The Swadeshi Movement, initiated in Bengal in response to the partition of Bengal in 1905, was characterized by the concept of "Constructive Swadeshi" which emphasized self-reliance (atmashakti). This approach aimed at empowering Indians economically, socially, and culturally by promoting indigenous industries and institutions.
Core Elements of Constructive Swadeshi:

1. Economic Self-Reliance:
   

   • Explanation: The movement advocated for the boycott of British goods and the promotion of Indian-made products to boost local industries and reduce dependence on British imports.

   • Example: Establishment of swadeshi enterprises such as the Bengal Chemical Works by Acharya P.C. Ray and the use of khadi (homespun cloth) as a symbol of economic independence.

2. Educational and Social Reforms:
   

   • Explanation: Emphasis was placed on the creation of national educational institutions and the spread of indigenous knowledge to build a self-reliant society.

   • Example: The establishment of the National Council of Education in 1906 and institutions like Jadavpur University aimed at providing education free from colonial influence.

3. Cultural Revival:
   

   • Explanation: Revival of Indian culture, arts, and crafts was seen as essential for fostering national pride and unity.

   • Example: Rabindranath Tagore’s songs and writings played a significant role in promoting Bengali culture and the idea of self-reliance through cultural expression.

Impact and Significance:

1. Strengthening Local Industries:
   

   • Explanation: The focus on indigenous products helped revive traditional industries and encouraged the growth of new enterprises, laying the foundation for economic self-sufficiency.

   • Example: Swadeshi textile mills and cottage industries flourished as people increasingly chose Indian-made goods over British imports.

2. Fostering Nationalism:
   

   • Explanation: Constructive Swadeshi instilled a sense of pride and unity among Indians, fostering a collective identity against colonial rule.

   • Example: Mass participation in swadeshi activities, including rallies, bonfires of foreign goods, and the promotion of local handicrafts, exemplified the spirit of nationalism.

Conclusion: 
"Constructive Swadeshi," characterized by atmashakti (self-reliance), was a crucial aspect of the Swadeshi Movement in Bengal. It emphasized economic independence, educational reforms, and cultural revival to empower Indians and resist colonial exploitation. This multifaceted approach not only challenged British economic dominance but also fostered a sense of national pride and unity, significantly contributing to the broader Indian freedom struggle.

Q2:
(a) How far is it correct to say that if Clive was the founder of the British Empire in India, Warren Hastings was its administrative organiser ?
Ans:
Introduction: 
The establishment and consolidation of British rule in India involved key figures who played distinct roles at different stages. Robert Clive is often considered the founder of the British Empire in India due to his military victories and initial consolidation of British power, while Warren Hastings is regarded as its administrative organizer for his extensive reforms and administrative policies.
Robert Clive as the Founder:

1. Military Victories:
   

   • Explanation: Clive's military success, particularly at the Battle of Plassey in 1757, laid the foundation for British dominance in India by securing control over Bengal.

   • Example: The victory at Plassey allowed the British East India Company to gain significant political and economic control, marking the beginning of British rule in India.

2. Political Maneuvering:
   

   • Explanation: Clive's diplomatic strategies and alliances with Indian rulers helped expand British influence beyond Bengal.

   • Example: His establishment of puppet rulers and manipulation of local politics ensured British interests were prioritized, further consolidating British power.

Warren Hastings as the Administrative Organizer:

1. Administrative Reforms:
   

   • Explanation: Hastings implemented significant administrative changes that laid the groundwork for a structured and efficient colonial administration.

   • Example: Introduction of a new revenue system, the Permanent Settlement, aimed at stabilizing revenue collection and encouraging agricultural productivity.

2. Judicial Reforms:
   

   • Explanation: Hastings reformed the judicial system to create a more organized and consistent legal framework.

   • Example: Establishment of civil and criminal courts, codification of laws, and introduction of a regular police force to maintain law and order.

3. Cultural and Economic Policies:
   

   • Explanation: Hastings promoted policies that balanced British interests with a respect for Indian culture and traditions.

   • Example: His support for the translation of key Hindu and Muslim texts and efforts to understand and integrate Indian customs into the administrative framework.

Conclusion: 
It is correct to say that Robert Clive was the founder of the British Empire in India, while Warren Hastings was its administrative organizer. Clive's military victories and political strategies established British dominance, while Hastings' administrative, judicial, and economic reforms provided the organizational structure necessary for effective governance. Together, their contributions were pivotal in the establishment and consolidation of British colonial rule in India.

(b) "Peace hath her victories no less renowned than war." Examine this statement with reference to Lord William Bentinck.
Ans:
Introduction: 
The statement "Peace hath her victories no less renowned than war" highlights the significant achievements that can be made during peacetime, often rivaling those accomplished through conflict. Lord William Bentinck, serving as Governor-General of India from 1828 to 1835, exemplified this through his wide-ranging reforms that had lasting impacts on Indian society and governance.
Administrative and Social Reforms:

1. Abolition of Sati:
   

   • Explanation: Bentinck is renowned for his decisive action in abolishing the practice of Sati, where widows were immolated on their husband's funeral pyres. This was a landmark reform in social legislation.

   • Example: In 1829, Bentinck issued a regulation declaring Sati illegal and punishable by criminal courts, a move that saved countless lives and advanced women's rights in India.

2. Suppression of Thuggee:
   

   • Explanation: Thuggee, a system of robbery and murder by strangulation, was rampant in India. Bentinck's administration worked to eradicate this menace, ensuring safer travel and commerce.

   • Example: The establishment of a dedicated department under Captain Sleeman led to the capture and prosecution of many Thugs, significantly reducing their influence.

Economic and Educational Reforms:

1. Revenue and Judicial Reforms:
   

   • Explanation: Bentinck introduced measures to improve revenue collection and the judicial system, making them more efficient and fair.

   • Example: He reorganized the revenue system and reformed the judiciary by setting up a system of civil and criminal courts with better procedures, which improved the administration of justice.

2. Promotion of Western Education:
   

   • Explanation: Bentinck was a proponent of modern education and played a key role in the promotion of Western-style education in India.

   • Example: The English Education Act of 1835, inspired by Macaulay's Minute on Education, aimed at promoting English language education, laying the groundwork for a new educational framework in India.

Conclusion: 
Lord William Bentinck's tenure as Governor-General of India demonstrated that significant victories could be achieved through peaceful means. His administrative, social, and economic reforms had a profound and lasting impact on Indian society. By abolishing inhumane practices, promoting justice, and advancing education, Bentinck's peaceful victories were as significant as any achieved through war, showcasing the power of progressive and humane governance.

(c) "India's need for a federal system was more an imperative than a political choice." Do you agree?
Ans:
Introduction: 
India's adoption of a federal system was driven more by necessity than by mere political preference. The diverse and vast nature of the country, encompassing multiple languages, cultures, and regional identities, required a governance structure that could accommodate this complexity and ensure stability and unity.
Imperatives for a Federal System:

1. Diverse Demographics:
   

   • Explanation: India is home to a multitude of ethnicities, languages, religions, and cultures. A centralized system would struggle to address the unique needs and aspirations of such a heterogeneous population.

   • Example: The linguistic reorganization of states in 1956, where states were created based on the major languages spoken, highlights the importance of recognizing regional identities within a federal framework.

2. Geographic Vastness:
   

   • Explanation: The sheer geographic size of India necessitated a decentralized form of governance to ensure effective administration and governance.

   • Example: From the Himalayan states in the north to the coastal regions in the south, each area has distinct administrative and developmental needs that are best managed by local governments.

3. Historical Context:
   

   • Explanation: Historically, India was a collection of princely states and regions with varying degrees of autonomy under colonial rule. A federal system provided a way to integrate these diverse entities into a cohesive nation.

   • Example: The integration of over 500 princely states into the Indian Union required a system that could offer both autonomy and unity, which a federal structure facilitated.

Political Choices and Compromises:

1. Balancing Power:
   

   • Explanation: A federal system allows for a balance of power between the central and state governments, preventing the concentration of authority and promoting checks and balances.

   • Example: The division of subjects into Union, State, and Concurrent Lists in the Indian Constitution ensures that both central and state governments have clearly defined areas of authority.

2. Accommodation of Regional Aspirations:
   

   • Explanation: Federalism allows for regional aspirations to be addressed within the framework of a united nation, reducing the risk of secessionist movements and fostering national integration.

   • Example: The creation of new states like Telangana in 2014 demonstrates the federal system's flexibility in addressing regional demands for greater autonomy.

Conclusion: 
India's need for a federal system was indeed more an imperative than a political choice. The country's vast diversity, historical context, and geographic size necessitated a governance structure that could accommodate and manage these complexities effectively. The federal system has enabled India to maintain unity while respecting and addressing the unique needs of its diverse population, proving essential for the nation's stability and progress.

Q3:
(a) Critically examine the causes responsible for the phenomenon called 'de-industrialisation' in India during the nineteenth century.
Ans:
Introduction: 
The nineteenth century in India witnessed a significant decline in traditional industries, a phenomenon known as 'de-industrialization.' This period saw the collapse of indigenous handicrafts and small-scale industries, leading to severe economic and social consequences. Several factors contributed to this de-industrialization, ranging from colonial policies to global economic changes.
Colonial Economic Policies:

1. British Trade Policies:
   

   • Explanation: The British colonial administration imposed policies that favored the import of British manufactured goods while restricting Indian exports.

   • Example: High tariffs and duties were placed on Indian textiles, making them less competitive in both domestic and international markets. Simultaneously, British goods were allowed into India at nominal duties, flooding the market and outcompeting local products.

2. Destruction of Traditional Industries:
   

   • Explanation: The British systematically dismantled India's traditional industries to serve their economic interests.

   • Example: The textile industry in Bengal, once a thriving sector, was decimated by British policies that prioritized raw cotton export to Britain and the import of finished textiles back to India.

Economic Changes and Global Market Forces:

1. Introduction of Machine-made Goods:
   

   • Explanation: The Industrial Revolution in Britain led to the production of cheap, machine-made goods that could be sold at lower prices than handcrafted Indian products.

   • Example: The widespread availability of British textiles in Indian markets led to a sharp decline in demand for locally produced handloom fabrics, causing many artisans to lose their livelihoods.

2. Shift in Agricultural Policies:
   

   • Explanation: Colonial policies encouraged the production of cash crops for export rather than food crops or raw materials for local industries.

   • Example: Farmers were often coerced into growing indigo, cotton, and opium instead of traditional food crops, disrupting the local economy and reducing the availability of raw materials for indigenous industries.

Social and Infrastructural Impacts:

1. Decline in Artisan Communities:
   

   • Explanation: The decline of traditional industries led to the disintegration of artisan communities that had thrived for centuries.

   • Example: Skilled craftsmen and weavers found themselves out of work and were forced to migrate to cities in search of low-paying jobs, leading to urban overcrowding and poverty.

2. Inadequate Industrial Development:
   

   • Explanation: While the British invested in infrastructure like railways and ports, these were primarily designed to facilitate the extraction of raw materials and the import of British goods, not to support local industrial growth.

   • Example: The lack of investment in modernizing Indian industries meant that local producers could not compete with British manufacturing capabilities.

Conclusion: 
The de-industrialization of India during the nineteenth century was a complex phenomenon driven by a combination of exploitative colonial policies, global economic shifts, and the rise of industrialization in Britain. These factors collectively undermined India's traditional industries, leading to widespread economic and social disruption. The legacy of this de-industrialization had long-lasting impacts, contributing to the economic challenges faced by India in the subsequent decades.

(b) How far is it correct to say that the 19th century tribal uprisings are a part of subaltern nationalism ?
Ans:
Introduction: 
The 19th-century tribal uprisings in India represent a significant aspect of resistance against colonial rule. These uprisings, while not directly linked to the broader nationalist movement, can be viewed as a part of subaltern nationalism due to their focus on local autonomy, cultural preservation, and resistance to exploitation.
Tribal Uprisings as Subaltern Nationalism:

1. Grassroots Resistance:
   

   • Explanation: Tribal uprisings were largely grassroots movements, driven by the local communities' need to protect their land, resources, and way of life from colonial exploitation.

   • Example: The Santhal Rebellion (1855-56) was a major uprising where the Santhal community rose against the British landlords and moneylenders who were exploiting them.

2. Defense of Traditional Rights:
   

   • Explanation: These uprisings were fueled by the defense of traditional land rights and autonomy against the imposition of foreign revenue systems.

   • Example: The Munda Rebellion (1899-1900) led by Birsa Munda aimed to protect tribal lands from the encroachment of landlords and the British administration.

3. Cultural and Religious Revival:
   

   • Explanation: Many tribal revolts had elements of cultural and religious revival, asserting the indigenous identity against colonial suppression.

   • Example: Birsa Munda also sought to revive traditional Munda religion and culture, positioning himself as a messianic figure to inspire his people.

Localized but Impactful:

1. Localized Movements:
   

   • Explanation: These movements were often localized and not directly connected to the broader Indian nationalist movement, yet they reflected a form of resistance against colonial power.

   • Example: The Rampa Rebellion (1879-80) in the Andhra region was a localized revolt against British interference in tribal lands and customs.

2. Inspiration for Nationalist Leaders:
   

   • Explanation: The spirit of resistance in these uprisings inspired later nationalist leaders and highlighted the importance of incorporating marginalized voices into the freedom struggle.

   • Example: The resilience shown in these uprisings influenced leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, who later integrated the concerns of various marginalized communities into the broader independence movement.

Conclusion: 
The 19th-century tribal uprisings in India, while localized and distinct from the mainstream nationalist movement, represent a crucial aspect of subaltern nationalism. These uprisings embodied the resistance of marginalized communities against colonial exploitation and efforts to preserve their cultural identity and autonomy. They highlighted the diverse forms of anti-colonial struggle and contributed to the broader narrative of resistance leading up to India's independence.

(c) How did Dr. B.R. Ambedkar try to seek a political solution to the problem of caste in India ?
Ans:
Introduction: 
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, a prominent social reformer and the principal architect of the Indian Constitution, sought to address the entrenched caste system in India through various political strategies. His efforts were aimed at ensuring social justice, equality, and political representation for the marginalized Dalits.
Political Solutions by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar:

1. Constitutional Safeguards:
   

   • Explanation: Ambedkar played a pivotal role in drafting the Indian Constitution, incorporating provisions to abolish untouchability and prohibit discrimination based on caste.

   • Example: Article 17 of the Constitution explicitly abolishes untouchability and its practice in any form.

2. Reservation Policy:
   

   • Explanation: To ensure adequate representation of Dalits in public services and educational institutions, Ambedkar advocated for a system of reservations.

   • Example: The Constitution provides for reserved seats for Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) in legislatures, government jobs, and educational institutions.

3. Political Representation:
   

   • Explanation: Ambedkar sought to empower Dalits politically by securing reserved constituencies where only Dalit candidates could stand for election.

   • Example: The provision for reserved seats in the Lok Sabha and state legislative assemblies ensured political participation and representation of Dalits.

4. Formation of Political Parties:
   

   • Explanation: Ambedkar believed in mobilizing Dalits through political platforms to fight for their rights and interests.

   • Example: He founded the Scheduled Castes Federation (SCF) in 1942 and later the Republican Party of India (RPI) to represent Dalit interests.

5. Legal Reforms:
   

   • Explanation: Ambedkar emphasized the importance of legal reforms to dismantle the caste system and protect the rights of Dalits.

   • Example: The Protection of Civil Rights Act (1955) and the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act (1989) were enacted to curb caste-based discrimination and violence.

Conclusion: 
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar's multifaceted approach to addressing the caste problem in India through constitutional safeguards, reservation policies, political representation, and legal reforms played a crucial role in challenging the caste hierarchy. His efforts laid the foundation for a more egalitarian society, striving to ensure that Dalits received social, economic, and political justice. Ambedkar's legacy continues to inspire movements against caste-based discrimination and for the empowerment of marginalized communities in India.

Q4:
(a) "The need to impose greater parliamentary control over the Company’s affairs increased during the decades (1773 - 1853) after Plassey." Elucidate.
Ans:
Introduction: 
The Battle of Plassey in 1757 marked the beginning of British political dominance in India, significantly enhancing the East India Company's power and wealth. However, this expansion necessitated increased parliamentary oversight to ensure the Company's accountability and the proper administration of its Indian territories.
Reasons for Greater Parliamentary Control:

1. Financial Mismanagement:
   

   • Explanation: The East India Company faced severe financial difficulties due to mismanagement and corruption among its officials.

   • Example: The Regulating Act of 1773 was introduced to address these issues, establishing a system of checks and balances by creating a Governor-General and a Council in Bengal.

2. Administrative Inefficiency:
   

   • Explanation: The Company's administrative practices in India were often inefficient and exploitative, leading to widespread discontent among the local population.

   • Example: The Pitt's India Act of 1784 sought to improve governance by creating a Board of Control in Britain to oversee the Company's affairs, ensuring more direct parliamentary supervision.

3. Political Instability:
   

   • Explanation: The expansion of British territories in India led to frequent conflicts and political instability, necessitating a more stable and responsible governance structure.

   • Example: The Charter Act of 1813 renewed the Company's charter but also allowed missionaries to enter India, reflecting Parliament's growing involvement in Indian affairs.

4. Economic Exploitation:
   

   • Explanation: The Company's focus on economic exploitation, particularly in terms of land revenue and trade monopolies, caused significant distress among Indian peasants and traders.

   • Example: The Charter Act of 1833 marked the end of the Company's trade monopoly, emphasizing administrative responsibilities and highlighting the need for increased parliamentary control.

5. Social and Legal Reforms:
   

   • Explanation: There was a growing recognition of the need for social and legal reforms to address the injustices perpetuated by the Company's rule.

   • Example: The Government of India Act of 1853 introduced competitive examinations for the Indian Civil Service, aiming to create a more meritocratic and efficient administration.

Conclusion: 
The decades following the Battle of Plassey saw an increasing need for parliamentary control over the East India Company's affairs due to financial mismanagement, administrative inefficiency, political instability, economic exploitation, and the demand for social and legal reforms. These measures were crucial in transitioning from a commercial enterprise to a structured colonial administration, setting the stage for the eventual establishment of direct British rule in India.

(b) What significant role did women play in the Indian National Movement ?
Ans:
Introduction: 
Women played a significant and multifaceted role in the Indian National Movement, contributing to its success and leaving a lasting impact on the country's struggle for independence. Their involvement ranged from active participation in protests to leadership roles and social reform initiatives.
Roles Played by Women in the Indian National Movement:

1. Active Participation in Protests:
   

   • Explanation: Women actively participated in various protests, demonstrations, and non-violent resistance movements against British rule.

   • Example: During the Salt March of 1930, women like Sarojini Naidu and Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay played crucial roles in mobilizing masses and leading protests.

2. Leadership Roles:
   

   • Explanation: Several women emerged as prominent leaders, inspiring others to join the movement and fight for independence.

   • Example: Sarojini Naidu, known as the "Nightingale of India," was a key figure in the Congress and a close associate of Mahatma Gandhi, leading many civil disobedience movements.

3. Social Reforms and Education:
   

   • Explanation: Women activists also focused on social reforms, emphasizing education and the upliftment of women in Indian society.

   • Example: Annie Besant, an advocate of Home Rule, also worked extensively on promoting education and social reforms for women.

4. Revolutionary Activities:
   

   • Explanation: Some women participated in revolutionary activities, joining secret societies and engaging in armed struggle against British rule.

   • Example: Women like Kalpana Dutta and Pritilata Waddedar were involved in the Chittagong Armoury Raid, showcasing their bravery and dedication to the cause.

5. Cultural and Literary Contributions:
   

   • Explanation: Women contributed to the national movement through literature, art, and cultural expressions, spreading nationalist ideas and fostering a sense of unity.

   • Example: Writers like Kamala Das and artists like Amrita Sher-Gil used their talents to highlight social issues and inspire patriotism.

6. Supportive Roles:
   

   • Explanation: Women also played supportive roles, such as providing shelter, food, and medical aid to freedom fighters, and spreading nationalist messages through informal networks.

   • Example: Kasturba Gandhi, the wife of Mahatma Gandhi, supported the movement by managing ashrams, organizing women, and participating in protests.

Conclusion: 
Women played a crucial role in the Indian National Movement, contributing to its success through active participation, leadership, social reforms, revolutionary activities, and cultural contributions. Their involvement not only advanced the cause of independence but also laid the foundation for women's rights and empowerment in post-independence India.

(c) Critically examine the nature and scope of environmental movements in Independent India.
Ans:
Introduction: 
Environmental movements in independent India have been diverse and dynamic, reflecting the growing concern over environmental degradation and the need for sustainable development. These movements have aimed at protecting natural resources, conserving biodiversity, and advocating for environmental justice.
Nature and Scope of Environmental Movements in Independent India:

1. Grassroots Movements:
   

   • Explanation: Grassroots movements have been a significant feature of India's environmental activism, involving local communities in the protection and management of their natural resources.

   • Example: The Chipko Movement in the 1970s, where villagers in Uttarakhand hugged trees to prevent their felling, is a notable example of grassroots environmentalism.

2. Anti-Development Protests:
   

   • Explanation: Many environmental movements have opposed large-scale development projects that threaten ecological balance and displace local communities.

   • Example: The Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA) against the construction of large dams on the Narmada River highlighted the adverse impacts on the environment and the displacement of indigenous people.

3. Legal and Policy Advocacy:
   

   • Explanation: Environmental movements have also taken the route of legal and policy advocacy to bring about systemic changes in environmental governance.

   • Example: The efforts of Medha Patkar and other activists led to legal battles and the establishment of the Narmada Water Disputes Tribunal.

4. Urban Environmentalism:
   

   • Explanation: With rapid urbanization, environmental movements have emerged in cities to address issues like air pollution, waste management, and the preservation of green spaces.

   • Example: The "Save Aarey" campaign in Mumbai aimed to protect the Aarey forest area from being converted into a metro car shed, raising awareness about urban deforestation.

5. Conservation and Wildlife Protection:
   

   • Explanation: Movements focused on conservation and wildlife protection have sought to preserve India's rich biodiversity and prevent species extinction.

   • Example: The Silent Valley Movement in Kerala successfully halted the construction of a hydroelectric project in the Silent Valley forest, safeguarding the habitat of endangered species.

6. Climate Change Activism:
   

   • Explanation: Recent environmental movements have increasingly addressed global issues like climate change, advocating for sustainable practices and renewable energy.

   • Example: The rise of youth-led movements, such as Fridays for Future India, reflects growing concern over climate change and its impact on future generations.

Conclusion: 
The environmental movements in independent India have been varied in nature and scope, ranging from grassroots activism to legal battles and policy advocacy. These movements have played a crucial role in raising awareness, influencing policies, and driving actions towards environmental conservation and sustainability. Despite facing numerous challenges, they continue to be a vital force in addressing India's environmental issues.