UPSC Mains Answer PYQ 2019: History Paper 1 (Section- B) | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Q.5. Answer the following questions in about 150 words each : (10x5=50 Marks)
(a) Discuss how Vijayanagar empire became the cultural capital of the south ? (10 Marks)

Introduction
The Vijayanagar Empire, also known as the Kingdom of Bisnagar, was a powerful empire that ruled over South India from the 14th to the 17th century. During its reign, the empire not only established its dominance in terms of political and military power but also emerged as the cultural capital of the south. This essay will discuss the factors that contributed to the Vijayanagar Empire becoming the cultural capital of the south, including its patronage of art, literature, architecture, and religion.

1. Patronage of Art: One of the key reasons for the Vijayanagar Empire becoming the cultural capital of the south was its extensive patronage of art. The empire's rulers, particularly Krishnadevaraya, were known for their love and patronage of art and artists. They encouraged artists from various fields such as painting, sculpture, and music to flourish under their patronage. The artists were provided with financial support, resources, and a conducive environment to showcase their talents.

For example, the Vijayanagar rulers commissioned the creation of magnificent temples adorned with intricate carvings and sculptures. The famous Vittala Temple in Hampi is a prime example of the empire's patronage of architecture and sculpture. The temple complex is renowned for its exquisite stone carvings, including the famous musical pillars that produce different musical notes when struck.

2. Literary Contributions: Besides art, the Vijayanagar Empire also made significant contributions to literature. The rulers of the empire were great patrons of Sanskrit and Telugu literature, and their court was home to renowned poets and scholars. The empire's support for literature resulted in the emergence of a rich literary tradition, with many great works being composed during this period.

One of the most famous literary figures associated with the Vijayanagar Empire was Allasani Peddana, who served as the court poet of Krishnadevaraya. Peddana's work "Manucharitram" is considered a masterpiece of Telugu literature and highlights the cultural richness of the Vijayanagar Empire. The empire's patronage of literature not only enhanced its cultural prestige but also contributed to the development of regional languages.

3. Architectural Marvels: The Vijayanagar Empire's architectural prowess played a significant role in establishing it as the cultural capital of the south. The empire's rulers built numerous temples, palaces, and other architectural marvels that showcased their grandeur and sophistication. The architectural style of the empire was a fusion of various regional influences, resulting in a unique Vijayanagara style.

One of the finest examples of the empire's architectural brilliance is the Hazara Rama Temple. This temple, dedicated to Lord Rama, is known for its intricately carved bas-reliefs that depict scenes from the Ramayana. The temple's walls are adorned with detailed carvings of gods, goddesses, and mythological creatures, showcasing the empire's devotion to art and culture.

4. Religious Syncretism: Religion played a crucial role in the cultural development of the Vijayanagar Empire. The empire embraced a policy of religious syncretism, which promoted harmony and tolerance among different religions and sects. This inclusive approach allowed various religious communities, such as Hindus, Muslims, and Jains, to thrive and contribute to the empire's cultural landscape.

For instance, the empire's rulers supported the construction of mosques, dargahs, and other Islamic structures alongside Hindu temples. This religious tolerance not only fostered a sense of unity among the diverse population but also encouraged the exchange of ideas and practices. The result was a vibrant cultural milieu that reflected the coexistence of different religious beliefs and practices.

Conclusion
In conclusion, the Vijayanagar Empire became the cultural capital of the south due to its patronage of art, literature, architecture, and religious syncretism. The empire's rulers played a significant role in promoting and nurturing these cultural aspects, resulting in a flourishing artistic and intellectual environment. The empire's architectural marvels, literary contributions, and religious tolerance continue to inspire and fascinate people to this day, cementing its legacy as a cultural powerhouse in South India.

(b) Examine the status of Sanskrit in Mughal India. (10 Marks)

Introduction
Sanskrit, the ancient language of India, played a significant role in the cultural and intellectual landscape of Mughal India. The Mughal Empire, which spanned from the early 16th century to the mid-19th century, was known for its patronage of arts and literature. Sanskrit, being the language of the religious and intellectual elite, held a prestigious position during this period. However, the status of Sanskrit in Mughal India was not uniform and varied depending on the rulers and their policies. In this essay, we will examine the status of Sanskrit in Mughal India, exploring its usage, patronage, and the impact of Persianization on the language.

Usage of Sanskrit in Mughal India:

1. Religious texts and rituals: Sanskrit continued to be the language of religious texts and rituals in Mughal India. Hindu scriptures, such as the Vedas, Upanishads, and Puranas, were written and recited in Sanskrit. Temples and religious institutions maintained Sanskrit as the medium of religious ceremonies and hymns.

Example: The Mughal Emperor Akbar, known for his religious tolerance, respected Sanskrit by sponsoring the translation of the Mahabharata, one of the major Sanskrit epics, into Persian. This translation, called the Razmnama, was highly regarded and showcased the influence of Sanskrit literature on the Mughal court.

2. Literary pursuits: Sanskrit literature continued to flourish in Mughal India, with scholars and poets composing works in various genres such as poetry, drama, and philosophy. Many Sanskrit works were also translated into Persian, reflecting the Mughal court's interest in Sanskrit literature.

Example: The Mughal Emperor Jahangir was a patron of Sanskrit poetry and commissioned the translation of the famous Sanskrit play "Abhijnanasakuntalam" by Kalidasa into Persian. This translation, titled "Sakuntala," became popular among the Persian-speaking elite and further elevated the status of Sanskrit.

3. Courtly language: Sanskrit was used as a courtly language in Mughal India, especially during the early years of the empire. Some Mughal emperors, like Akbar and Jahangir, had a deep appreciation for Sanskrit and encouraged its usage in courtly affairs.

Example: Akbar established a department called "Sanskriti" (meaning culture) in his court, which aimed to promote Sanskrit language and literature. This department employed Sanskrit scholars and organized debates, discussions, and recitals of Sanskrit works.

Impact of Persianization on Sanskrit in Mughal India:

1. Persian as the court language: As the Mughal Empire expanded and came into contact with Persian-speaking regions, Persian gradually became the dominant language at the Mughal court. This led to a decline in the usage and patronage of Sanskrit in official administrative matters.

Example: Emperor Shah Jahan, who built the Taj Mahal, was known for his inclination towards Persian culture and language. His court became heavily Persianized, and Sanskrit lost its prominence in official court proceedings.

2. Persian influence on Sanskrit literature: With the growing influence of Persian, Sanskrit literature also underwent changes. Many Sanskrit works were now composed with Persian influence, incorporating Persian themes, concepts, and literary techniques.

Example: The Sanskrit drama "Vasavadatta" by Subandhu, written during the Mughal period, shows the influence of Persian storytelling and poetic styles. The inclusion of Persian elements in Sanskrit literature was a result of the interaction between the two cultures.

3. Decline in patronage: As Persian became the language of the court and administration, the patronage of Sanskrit declined. Sanskrit scholars faced challenges in finding sponsorship and support for their works.

Example: During the later years of the Mughal Empire, the declining patronage of Sanskrit can be observed. Aurangzeb, the last great Mughal Emperor, had little interest in Sanskrit and focused more on Islamic theology and administration.

Conclusion
In conclusion, Sanskrit held a significant status in Mughal India, primarily as the language of religious texts, rituals, and literary pursuits. The Mughal emperors, particularly Akbar and Jahangir, patronized Sanskrit and promoted its translation and adaptation into Persian. However, the growing Persianization of the Mughal court led to a decline in the usage and patronage of Sanskrit in official matters. Sanskrit literature also underwent changes, incorporating Persian themes and techniques. Despite these challenges, Sanskrit continued to have a cultural and intellectual influence in Mughal India, leaving behind a rich legacy of literature and knowledge.

(c) Assess the rule of Zainul Abedin in Kashmir. (10 Marks)

Introduction
Zainul Abedin was a prominent ruler who ruled over Kashmir from 1420 to 1470. His reign saw significant changes in the political, economic, and cultural landscape of the region. This essay aims to assess the rule of Zainul Abedin in Kashmir, examining his achievements, contributions, and the impact of his policies on the region.

1. Political Reforms: Zainul Abedin implemented several political reforms during his rule. He centralized the administration by appointing reliable officials in key positions, which helped in maintaining law and order in the region. He established a system of justice and introduced reforms in the judicial system. His efforts led to a fairer and more efficient legal system. Zainul Abedin focused on diplomacy and maintained good relations with neighboring states, ensuring stability and peace in Kashmir. This allowed for the growth of trade and commerce.

Example: Zainul Abedin's diplomatic skills were evident in his successful negotiations with the neighboring state of Ladakh. He resolved long-standing territorial disputes and secured a favorable trade agreement, benefiting both regions.

2. Economic Development: Zainul Abedin implemented policies that promoted economic growth in Kashmir. He encouraged agricultural development by providing incentives to farmers and introducing new farming techniques. He established a network of roads and bridges, improving transportation and facilitating trade within the region. This led to increased commerce and prosperity. The ruler also encouraged the growth of cottage industries, such as handicrafts and silk production, which became important sources of revenue for the region.

Example: Zainul Abedin's support for the silk industry led to its flourishing in Kashmir. The production of high-quality silk became a major source of income for the region, attracting traders from distant lands and boosting the local economy.

3. Cultural Patronage: Zainul Abedin was a great patron of the arts and culture. He encouraged the revival of Kashmiri literature, music, and dance forms, which had declined during previous rulers' reigns. The ruler supported the establishment of schools, libraries, and centers of learning, promoting education and intellectual growth in the region. Zainul Abedin also took initiatives to preserve and restore historical monuments and heritage sites, contributing to the preservation of Kashmir's rich cultural heritage.

Example: Zainul Abedin's patronage of the arts led to a flourishing of Kashmiri literature. Many renowned poets and scholars emerged during his reign, contributing to the cultural renaissance of the region.

4. Religious Tolerance: Zainul Abedin was known for his religious tolerance and acceptance of different faiths. He ensured the protection of minority communities and promoted religious harmony in the region. The ruler encouraged interfaith dialogue and respected the beliefs and practices of all religious communities, fostering a peaceful coexistence. Zainul Abedin's policies of religious tolerance attracted scholars and religious leaders from different parts of the world, enriching the intellectual and spiritual environment of Kashmir.

Example: Zainul Abedin's support for religious tolerance is exemplified by his patronage of the great Kashmiri saint, Sheikh Noor-ud-Din Wali. The saint's teachings of peace and harmony became popular during this time, spreading a message of unity among people of different faiths.

Conclusion
Zainul Abedin's rule in Kashmir was marked by political stability, economic growth, cultural revival, and religious tolerance. His reforms and policies contributed to the overall development of the region and left a lasting impact on its history. Zainul Abedin's achievements as a ruler continue to be recognized and celebrated, highlighting his significant role in shaping the destiny of Kashmir.

(d) The economic measures of Alauddin Khalji were aimed at greater political control. Discuss. (10 Marks)

Introduction
Alauddin Khalji was a medieval ruler of the Delhi Sultanate who ruled from 1296 to 1316. He is known for his economic measures that were primarily aimed at achieving greater political control. These measures were implemented to consolidate his power, strengthen the economy, and maintain a strong military force. This essay will discuss in detail the economic measures undertaken by Alauddin Khalji and how they were interconnected with his political objectives.

1. Market control and price regulation: Alauddin Khalji implemented a system of market control and price regulation to ensure stability in the economy and prevent hoarding and black marketing. He established a centralized market, called the Mandi, where all goods were sold at fixed prices. This allowed the government to have control over the prices of essential commodities, such as food grains, which were crucial for maintaining a strong military. For example, Alauddin appointed market inspectors, known as Shahna, who were responsible for monitoring prices and ensuring compliance with the regulations.

2. Tax reforms and revenue generation: Alauddin Khalji introduced several tax reforms to generate revenue for the state and strengthen his political control. He imposed a 50% tax on agricultural produce, known as the 'Khalisa'. This tax was collected directly by the state and helped to build a strong treasury. Additionally, Alauddin introduced a tax on non-agricultural land, known as 'Ghara'. These tax reforms not only generated revenue but also allowed the state to exert control over the agricultural and non-agricultural sectors.

3. Military reforms and economic control: Alauddin Khalji's economic measures were closely tied to his military reforms and control. He maintained a strong military force and implemented policies to ensure a constant supply of resources for the army. The economic measures, such as market control and tax reforms, played a crucial role in financing the military and maintaining a well-equipped army. For example, the revenue generated from the agricultural tax, Khalisa, was primarily used to fund the military expenses.

4. Centralization of power: One of the key objectives of Alauddin Khalji's economic measures was to centralize power in his own hands and reduce the influence of the nobility. He introduced a system of assessment and revenue collection, known as the 'Dagh' system, which bypassed the local nobles and allowed the state to directly collect revenue from the peasants. This centralized system weakened the power of the nobility and ensured that the revenue reached the state treasury, strengthening Alauddin's political control.

5. Control over trade and commerce: Alauddin Khalji implemented policies to control trade and commerce, which further enhanced his political control. He imposed taxes on goods entering and leaving the kingdom, known as 'Sijda' and 'Sara'. These taxes not only generated revenue but also allowed the state to regulate trade and prevent smuggling. By controlling trade routes and taxing commercial activities, Alauddin ensured that he had control over the flow of goods and resources, which was crucial for maintaining his political dominance.

6. Market reforms and welfare measures: Despite implementing strict economic measures, Alauddin Khalji also introduced market reforms and welfare measures to benefit the common people. He initiated a system of minimum wages for laborers and fixed prices for essential commodities to protect them from exploitation. He also established a network of public granaries, known as 'Tanka', to ensure food security during times of scarcity. These measures not only won the support of the common people but also strengthened Alauddin's political control by ensuring their economic well-being.

Conclusion
Alauddin Khalji's economic measures were undoubtedly aimed at achieving greater political control. By implementing market control, tax reforms, and trade regulations, he consolidated his power and weakened the influence of the nobility. These measures also played a crucial role in financing the military and maintaining a strong army. However, it is important to note that Alauddin also introduced welfare measures and market reforms to benefit the common people, which helped to gain their support and further strengthen his political control. Overall, Alauddin Khalji's economic measures were a means to an end, allowing him to achieve his political objectives and establish a centralized and powerful state.

(e) Examine the European impact on Mughal paintings. (10 Marks)

Introduction
Mughal paintings, developed during the Mughal Empire in the Indian subcontinent between the 16th and 19th centuries, experienced significant influences from European art. This impact can be seen in various aspects of Mughal paintings, including subject matter, composition, style, techniques, and materials used. European influence on Mughal paintings can be attributed to factors such as trade, diplomatic relations, and the presence of European artists in the Mughal court. This essay will examine in detail the European impact on Mughal paintings, providing examples and analyzing the changes that occurred during this period.

1. European Influence on Subject Matter: One of the most significant impacts of European art on Mughal paintings was the introduction of new subject matter. Prior to European influence, Mughal paintings primarily focused on scenes from daily life, courtly activities, and illustrations of literary works. However, with the arrival of European art, new themes such as biblical stories and Christian iconography started appearing in Mughal paintings. For example, the painting "The Last Supper" by Mughal artist Govardhan depicts the biblical event of Jesus sharing a final meal with his disciples. This shows the assimilation of European subject matter into Mughal paintings.

2. European Influence on Composition: European art also influenced the composition of Mughal paintings. European paintings often featured realistic representations of space and depth, achieved through techniques such as perspective. This influence can be seen in Mughal paintings through the adoption of more naturalistic and three-dimensional compositions. For instance, in the painting "Jahangir Preferring a Sufi Shaikh to Kings," the use of perspective and a realistic sense of depth is evident in the placement of figures and objects within the painting. This departure from the traditional flat and two-dimensional compositions of Mughal paintings showcases the European impact.

3. European Influence on Style: European art styles, particularly those of the Renaissance and Baroque periods, had a profound impact on the style of Mughal paintings. The use of chiaroscuro (the contrast of light and dark) and the depiction of realistic textures were techniques adopted from European art. Mughal artists began incorporating these elements into their works, resulting in a fusion of European and Mughal styles. An example of this can be seen in the painting "Emperor Jahangir with a Falcon," where the use of light and shadow to create a three-dimensional effect is reminiscent of the European Baroque style.

4. European Influence on Techniques and Materials: European art also influenced the techniques and materials used in Mughal paintings. The introduction of oil painting by European artists had a significant impact on the medium used by Mughal painters. While traditional Mughal paintings were primarily done using watercolors and opaque pigments, European influence led to the adoption of oil paints. This shift allowed for greater versatility in color and texture, enhancing the visual impact of Mughal paintings. For instance, the painting "Akbar Hunting with Cheetahs" showcases the use of oil paints, resulting in vibrant colors and a rich texture.

Conclusion
In conclusion, the European impact on Mughal paintings was significant and can be observed in various aspects of the art form. The introduction of new subject matter, such as biblical stories, the adoption of more naturalistic compositions, the fusion of European and Mughal styles, and the use of techniques and materials from European art all contributed to the transformation of Mughal paintings. This exchange between European and Mughal art not only enriched the visual language of Mughal paintings but also reflected the cultural exchange and influences that occurred during the Mughal Empire. The European impact on Mughal paintings serves as a testament to the interconnectedness of artistic traditions and the power of artistic exchange to shape and evolve artistic practices.

Q.6. Answer the following questions.
(a) Assess the statement that 'the philosophy of Shankaracharya revolutionised religious thoughts in India’.  (20 Marks)

Introduction
The philosophy of Shankaracharya, a renowned philosopher and theologian of ancient India, is considered a seminal force in revolutionizing religious thoughts in the country. Shankaracharya, who lived in the 8th century CE, is credited with the development and propagation of Advaita Vedanta, a school of thought that has had a profound impact on the understanding of Hinduism and the relationship between the individual soul (Atman) and the ultimate reality (Brahman). This essay will assess the statement that Shankaracharya's philosophy revolutionized religious thoughts in India by exploring the key tenets of Advaita Vedanta and its influence on religious and philosophical discourse in the country.

Key Tenets of Advaita Vedanta:

1. Non-Dualism: The central concept in Shankaracharya's philosophy is Advaita, meaning non-dualism. According to this school of thought, the ultimate reality, Brahman, is devoid of any duality and is the only true existence. Shankaracharya emphasized that the individual soul (Atman) is not separate from Brahman but rather an inherent part of it. This non-dualistic understanding of reality challenged the prevalent dualistic schools of thought and revolutionized the understanding of the relationship between the individual and the divine.

Example: Shankaracharya's famous statement "Brahma satyam, jagat mithya" (Brahman is the only truth, the world is an illusion) encapsulates the essence of Advaita Vedanta. This notion of the illusory nature of the world and the primacy of Brahman as the ultimate reality transformed the way religious and philosophical concepts were understood in India.

2. Maya: Shankaracharya introduced the concept of Maya, which refers to the illusory nature of the phenomenal world. According to Advaita Vedanta, the world we perceive is a product of Maya, which veils the true nature of Brahman. Shankaracharya argued that understanding and transcending Maya is essential to realizing the true nature of the self and attaining liberation (moksha).

Example: Shankaracharya's analogy of a rope mistaken for a snake illustrates the concept of Maya. Just as a rope appears as a snake due to a delusion, the world appears real due to Maya. This understanding of Maya challenged the conventional understanding of the world as a concrete reality and encouraged individuals to delve deeper into the nature of existence.

3. Jiva and Brahma: Shankaracharya's philosophy also revolutionized the understanding of the relationship between the individual soul (jiva) and the supreme reality (Brahman). According to Advaita Vedanta, the individual soul is not separate from Brahman but rather a part of it. Shankaracharya emphasized that the apparent distinction between the individual and the divine is illusory, and the realization of this unity is crucial for spiritual enlightenment.

Example: Shankaracharya's concept of jivanmukti, the liberation of the soul while still in the body, exemplifies the non-dualistic understanding of the self. He believed that through self-realization and the understanding of the unity of jiva and Brahma, individuals could attain liberation from the cycle of birth and death.

Influence on Religious Thoughts in India:

1. Reinterpretation of Scriptures: Shankaracharya's Advaita Vedanta prompted a reinterpretation of Hindu scriptures, particularly the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita. His commentaries on these texts provided a non-dualistic perspective, challenging the prevailing dualistic interpretations. This reinterpretation laid the foundation for a more inclusive and philosophical understanding of Hinduism.

Example: Shankaracharya's commentary on the Brahma Sutras, known as the Brahma Sutra Bhashya, is a seminal work that elucidates the Advaita Vedanta perspective. This commentary not only influenced subsequent philosophical discourse but also shaped the way scriptures were understood and interpreted in India.

2. Synthesis of Religious Practices: Shankaracharya's philosophy advocated the idea of unity in diversity and the synthesis of various religious practices. He emphasized that different forms of worship and rituals are valid paths to realize the ultimate reality. This inclusive approach helped bridge the gaps between different religious sects and fostered a sense of religious harmony.

Example: Shankaracharya established four major monastic orders (mathas) in different regions of India, each dedicated to the worship of a specific deity. These mathas, while honoring the diversity of deities, also propagated the Advaita Vedanta philosophy, promoting unity among different religious traditions.

Conclusion
Shankaracharya's Advaita Vedanta philosophy indeed revolutionized religious thoughts in India. His emphasis on non-dualism, the illusory nature of the world, and the unity of the individual soul and the ultimate reality challenged the prevailing dualistic interpretations of Hinduism. His reinterpretation of scriptures and his inclusive approach to religious practices had a lasting impact on religious and philosophical discourse in India. Shankaracharya's philosophy continues to be a source of inspiration for seekers of truth and has contributed significantly to the rich religious and philosophical tapestry of the country.

(b) Delineate the state of agriculture during the Sultanate period. (15 Marks)

Introduction
The Sultanate period in India (1206-1526) witnessed significant developments in the field of agriculture. Agriculture played a crucial role in the economy of the Sultanate, and several advancements were made in farming techniques, irrigation systems, and agricultural practices during this time. This essay will delve into the state of agriculture during the Sultanate period, highlighting key aspects and providing examples to support the discussion.

State of agriculture during the Sultanate period:

1. Expansion of cultivation: The Sultanate rulers encouraged the expansion of cultivation by granting tax exemptions and providing protection to farmers. New lands were brought under cultivation through land reclamation and clearance of forests. The construction of canals and embankments helped in reclaiming marshy lands for cultivation.

Example: The construction of the Ganga Canal during the reign of Firoz Shah Tughlaq in the 14th century facilitated irrigation and increased agricultural productivity in the region.

2. Introduction of new crops: The Sultanate period witnessed the introduction of several new crops and plants. Cash crops like sugarcane, cotton, and indigo were cultivated for trade and export. Fruit orchards and vegetable gardens were also established.

Example: The cultivation of sugarcane gained prominence during the Sultanate period, with the establishment of sugar mills in various parts of the country. The production and trade of sugar flourished, contributing to the economic growth of the region.

3. Improvement in irrigation systems: The Sultanate rulers made efforts to improve irrigation systems to ensure regular water supply for agricultural purposes. Tanks, reservoirs, and step-wells were constructed to store and distribute water. Persian wheel and the saqiya (water-lifting device) were introduced to bring water from wells and canals.

Example: The construction of tanks like Hauz-i-Shamsi in Delhi and Ranmal Lake in Gujarat ensured a steady water supply for irrigation, enhancing agricultural productivity in these regions.

4. Use of manure and fertilizers: Farmers during the Sultanate period adopted the use of manure and fertilizers to improve soil fertility. Animal dung, compost, and ash were commonly used as natural fertilizers. Crop rotation and fallow land practices were also employed to maintain soil fertility.

Example: In the Deccan region, farmers used the waste from silk-worms and sugarcane to prepare manure, which was then used to fertilize the fields. This practice helped in increasing crop yields and improving soil quality.

5. Agricultural innovations: The Sultanate period witnessed several innovations in agricultural practices. Improved plowing techniques using the iron plowshare were introduced. The use of bullocks for plowing and transportation increased efficiency. Crop protection measures like the use of scarecrows and bird nets were employed to safeguard crops.

Example: The use of iron plowshares in Bengal and other regions helped in breaking hard soil and preparing the land for cultivation more effectively, leading to higher agricultural output.

6. Role of peasants and zamindars: Peasants formed the backbone of the agricultural sector during the Sultanate period. They were responsible for cultivating the lands and paying revenue to the state. Zamindars, who were the intermediaries between the peasants and the state, played a significant role in agricultural administration.

Example: The zamindars in the Punjab region were responsible for collecting revenue from the peasants and maintaining law and order in the rural areas, ensuring smooth agricultural operations.

Conclusion
The Sultanate period witnessed significant advancements in agriculture, with the expansion of cultivation, introduction of new crops, improvements in irrigation systems, use of fertilizers, agricultural innovations, and the role of peasants and zamindars. These developments greatly contributed to the agricultural prosperity of the region, leading to economic growth and stability. The state of agriculture during the Sultanate period laid the foundation for further advancements in farming practices in subsequent eras.

(c) Sufi and Bhakti thoughts ennobled Indian psyche amidst the  vagaries of time. Elucidate. (15 Marks)

Introduction
Sufi and Bhakti thoughts have played a significant role in shaping the Indian psyche throughout history. These two spiritual movements emerged in different time periods, but their core teachings and principles have had a profound impact on the Indian society. Sufism, a mystical branch of Islam, and Bhakti, a devotional movement within Hinduism, both emphasize the importance of love, devotion, and unity with the divine. Over time, these thoughts have not only provided solace and guidance to individuals but have also fostered a sense of unity and tolerance among diverse communities in India. This essay aims to delve into the ways in which Sufi and Bhakti thoughts have ennobled the Indian psyche amidst the vagaries of time, highlighting specific examples and their lasting impact.

1. Promotion of Love and Compassion: Both Sufism and Bhakti emphasize the significance of love and compassion as the means to attain spiritual enlightenment. Sufi saints like Rumi, who preached about the power of love, have inspired countless individuals to cultivate love and compassion in their hearts. Similarly, Bhakti saints like Meera Bai and Kabir stressed the importance of love for God and humanity, transcending the barriers of caste and religion. These teachings have fostered a sense of empathy and understanding among individuals, leading to a more compassionate society.

2. Emphasis on Unity and Equality: Sufi and Bhakti thoughts have propagated the ideals of unity and equality, transcending the boundaries of caste, creed, and gender. Sufi saints like Nizamuddin Auliya and Bulleh Shah preached the concept of Wahdat-ul-Wujood, the unity of all existence, promoting harmony among different communities. Bhakti saints like Guru Nanak and Tukaram advocated for the unity of all beings, challenging the prevalent social hierarchies. These teachings have fostered a spirit of inclusivity and egalitarianism in the Indian psyche, promoting social cohesion and breaking down discriminatory practices.

3. Tolerance and Acceptance: Sufism and Bhakti thoughts have played a crucial role in promoting tolerance and acceptance of diverse religious beliefs and practices. Sufi saints like Moinuddin Chishti and Khwaja Bande Nawaz welcomed people from all faiths in their dargahs, creating spaces for interfaith dialogue and understanding. Bhakti saints like Ravidas and Chaitanya Mahaprabhu advocated for the acceptance of all paths leading to the divine, promoting religious harmony. These teachings have instilled a sense of respect for different religious traditions and fostered a spirit of coexistence among individuals of various faiths.

4. Social Reforms: Sufi and Bhakti thoughts have been instrumental in bringing about social reforms and challenging oppressive societal norms. Sufi saints like Basavanna and Dara Shikoh promoted gender equality and denounced the practice of untouchability, advocating for social justice. Bhakti saints like Sant Kabir and Ramananda criticized the caste system and advocated for the upliftment of the marginalized sections of society. These teachings have inspired social movements and contributed to the transformation of Indian society, promoting equality and justice.

Conclusion
In conclusion, Sufi and Bhakti thoughts have indeed ennobled the Indian psyche amidst the vagaries of time. Their teachings of love, compassion, unity, and tolerance have left an indelible impact on the Indian society, fostering a sense of empathy, inclusivity, and social reform. The profound influence of Sufi and Bhakti thoughts can be seen in the lives of countless individuals who have been inspired by their teachings. As India continues to navigate the challenges of the present and the future, the timeless wisdom of Sufi and Bhakti thoughts will undoubtedly continue to guide and elevate the Indian psyche.

Q.7. Answer the following questions.
(a) The emergence of early capitalism in the Mughal period was primarily due to urbanisation and commercialisation. Comment. (20 Marks)

Introduction
The Mughal period in India, spanning from the 16th to the 18th century, witnessed the emergence of early capitalism. This economic system, characterized by private ownership of means of production and the pursuit of profit, was primarily driven by the forces of urbanization and commercialization. In this essay, we will delve into the factors that facilitated the rise of early capitalism during the Mughal era, including the growth of urban centers, the expansion of trade networks, and the monetization of the economy. We will also provide examples and analyze the impact of these factors on the development of capitalism in the Mughal period.

1. Urbanization: Urban centers played a crucial role in the emergence of early capitalism in the Mughal period. The growth and development of cities provided a conducive environment for the expansion of commercial activities and the accumulation of wealth. A prime example of urbanization in the Mughal period is the city of Agra. It served as the capital of the Mughal Empire and witnessed significant urban growth during this time. Agra became a hub for trade and commerce, attracting merchants from various parts of the world. The urban centers provided a platform for artisans, traders, and businessmen to engage in economic activities, leading to the rise of a capitalist class that sought to maximize profits through trade and production.

2. Commercialization: The Mughal period witnessed a significant increase in commercial activities, which further facilitated the emergence of early capitalism. The expansion of trade networks, both within India and with other countries, played a vital role in this process. The establishment of the Mughal Empire led to improved political stability, which in turn encouraged trade and commerce. The empire's efficient administration and infrastructure development, such as the construction of roads and bridges, facilitated the movement of goods and people. The Portuguese, Dutch, and English traders were attracted to the rich resources and market potential of India during the Mughal period. Their presence in Indian ports and their engagement in trade with local merchants contributed to the commercialization of the economy. The emergence of a cash economy, with the introduction of currency and the monetization of economic transactions, further fueled commercialization. This shift from a barter system to a monetary system facilitated trade and exchange, enabling the growth of capitalism.

3. Expansion of trade networks: The expansion of trade networks during the Mughal period played a pivotal role in the development of early capitalism. The Mughal Empire actively promoted trade, both within India and with other regions, through the construction of roads, canals, and ports. The Grand Trunk Road, built by Sher Shah Suri, connected major cities from Bengal to Punjab, facilitating the movement of goods and people. This transportation network not only stimulated trade but also encouraged the growth of urban centers along the route. The Mughal Empire also established diplomatic and trade relations with various countries, including Persia, Central Asia, and Europe. The Silk Road and maritime routes connected India with these regions, leading to the exchange of goods, ideas, and technologies. The expansion of trade networks not only brought new goods and markets but also created opportunities for merchants to accumulate wealth and invest in productive activities. This accumulation of capital was a driving force behind the growth of early capitalism.

4. Impact on society and economy: The emergence of early capitalism in the Mughal period had a profound impact on society and the economy. The capitalist class, comprising merchants, bankers, and traders, gained significant influence and power. The accumulation of capital by the capitalist class led to the establishment of banking and financial institutions. Merchants started investing in various sectors, such as agriculture, textiles, and manufacturing, leading to increased production and economic growth. The growth of capitalism also had social implications. The capitalist class became a dominant force in society, challenging the traditional social hierarchy based on birth and caste. Wealth and economic success became key determinants of social status, leading to social mobility and the blurring of traditional boundaries. However, it is important to note that early capitalism in the Mughal period was not without its flaws. The exploitation of labor, unequal distribution of wealth, and the concentration of economic power in the hands of a few were some of the negative consequences of this system.

Conclusion
In conclusion, the emergence of early capitalism in the Mughal period can be primarily attributed to urbanization and commercialization. The growth of urban centers provided a fertile ground for the development of capitalism, while the expansion of trade networks and the monetization of the economy further facilitated its growth. The impact of early capitalism on society and the economy during the Mughal period was significant, leading to increased production, economic growth, and social transformation. However, it is essential to recognize that capitalism also brought about its share of challenges and inequalities. Overall, the Mughal period witnessed the rise of early capitalism, laying the foundation for the subsequent economic developments in India.

(b) Internal strife and conflict beset with personal ambitions was enough of an invitation for the Ghurids to invade India. Discuss.  (15 Marks)

Introduction
The Ghurids, a medieval dynasty from present-day Afghanistan, played a significant role in shaping the history of India. Their invasion of India was motivated by a combination of internal strife and personal ambitions. This essay aims to discuss the factors that led the Ghurids to invade India, providing examples to support the arguments. By examining the Ghurid dynasty's internal conflicts and individual ambitions, we can gain a better understanding of their motivations for invading India.

Internal Strife within the Ghurid Dynasty:

1. Succession disputes: Like many ruling dynasties, the Ghurids faced succession disputes that often led to internal conflicts. After the death of Sultan Bahram Shah in 1157, his sons fought over the throne, leading to a power vacuum. This internal strife weakened the Ghurid Empire and made it vulnerable to external invasions.

2. Power struggle between Ghurid nobles: The Ghurid Empire was composed of various noble families who continuously vied for power and influence. The constant power struggle among these nobles further weakened the empire, leaving it susceptible to external threats. The invasion of India provided an opportunity for these nobles to expand their power and control over new territories.

Example: The power struggle between the nobles of the Ghurid dynasty was evident in the case of Ghias-ud-din, who conspired against his own brother to seize the throne. This internal conflict weakened the empire, making it easier for external forces like the Ghurids to invade India.

Personal Ambitions of the Ghurid Rulers:

1. Desire for territorial expansion: The Ghurid rulers had a deep-seated desire for territorial expansion, seeking to establish their dominance over new lands. India, with its rich resources and vast population, presented an attractive opportunity for the Ghurids to expand their empire.

Example: Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, a prominent Ghurid ruler, invaded India multiple times between 1001 and 1027. His ambition for territorial expansion led to the plundering of numerous Indian cities, such as Mathura, Kannauj, and Somnath, further fueling the Ghurids' desire to invade India.

2. Economic incentives: India's prosperous trade networks and abundant resources were a significant attraction for the Ghurids. The Indian subcontinent was renowned for its wealth in spices, textiles, and precious metals, which presented lucrative economic opportunities for the Ghurid rulers.

Example: The Ghurid invasion of Gujarat in 1178 under the leadership of Muhammad of Ghor was driven by economic motivations. Gujarat was a prosperous region known for its maritime trade, and by seizing control of the area, the Ghurids could gain access to valuable resources and tap into lucrative trade routes.

Conclusion
The Ghurids' invasion of India was fueled by a combination of internal strife within the dynasty and the personal ambitions of its rulers. The succession disputes and power struggles within the Ghurid Empire weakened its control and made it vulnerable to external invasions. Additionally, the Ghurid rulers' desire for territorial expansion and economic incentives provided further motivations for their invasion of India. Examples such as the power struggle between Ghurid nobles and Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni's multiple invasions illustrate these motivations. By understanding the factors that led to the Ghurids' invasion of India, we can gain insight into the complex dynamics that shaped medieval Indian history.

(c) The Mughals built like Titans and embellished like jewellers. Comment. (15 Marks)

Introduction
The Mughal Empire, which spanned from the early 16th to the mid-19th century, was known for its grandeur and opulence. The Mughal emperors were renowned for their architectural prowess and their patronage of the arts. Their buildings were colossal in scale, resembling the works of Titans, while the intricate embellishments showcased the fine craftsmanship of jewellers. This essay will delve into the architectural achievements of the Mughals and their penchant for embellishments, providing examples to highlight their extraordinary craftsmanship.

1. The Titans of Architecture: The Mughal emperors, such as Babur, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb, were passionate patrons of architecture. They commissioned magnificent structures that were colossal in scale, demonstrating their grandeur and power. One prime example of such architecture is the Taj Mahal, built by Shah Jahan in memory of his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal. The Taj Mahal is a colossal mausoleum made entirely of white marble and is considered one of the greatest architectural achievements in the world. Its massive dome, towering minarets, and intricate detailing make it a prime example of the Mughals' titanic architectural style.
Another impressive architectural wonder built by the Mughals is the Red Fort in Delhi. This massive fort complex was constructed by Shah Jahan and served as the main residence of the Mughal emperors. The Red Fort's imposing walls, massive gates, and sprawling gardens exemplify the Mughals' penchant for building monumental structures. The grandeur of the fort is further enhanced by the intricate embellishments found throughout its palaces and halls.

2. Embellishments like Jewellers: While the Mughals built colossal structures, they also paid meticulous attention to intricate embellishments, reminiscent of the craftsmanship of jewellers. The Mughal architecture is characterized by its intricate carvings, delicate filigree work, and the extensive use of precious and semi-precious stones. One notable example of such embellishments is the Diwan-i-Khas or the Hall of Private Audience in the Red Fort. The hall is adorned with intricate marble inlays, showcasing the Mughals' mastery in the art of stone carving.
The Sheesh Mahal or the Palace of Mirrors in the Amber Fort of Jaipur is another prime example of the Mughals' love for embellishments. As the name suggests, the palace is entirely covered in mirrors, creating a mesmerizing effect when illuminated by candles or torches. The precision and craftsmanship required to create such intricate mirror work is comparable to the skills of jewellers.

Conclusion
In conclusion, the Mughals were indeed like Titans in their architectural pursuits, building colossal structures that showcased their grandeur and power. The Taj Mahal and the Red Fort are prime examples of their titanic architectural style, with their massive scale and imposing presence. However, the Mughals were not only concerned with size and scale; they also paid meticulous attention to intricate embellishments, reminiscent of the craftsmanship of jewellers. The Diwan-i-Khas and the Sheesh Mahal are examples of their extraordinary skill in intricate carvings and mirror work. The Mughals' ability to combine grandeur with delicate embellishments is a testament to their architectural prowess and their status as the builders of Titans and embellishers like jewellers.

Q.8. Answer the following questions.
(a) Critically analyse whether the success of the Mughals is to be credited to their robust Jagirdari and Mansabdari system. (15 Marks)

Introduction
The Mughal Empire, which spanned from 1526 to 1857, is often regarded as one of the most prosperous and powerful dynasties in Indian history. The success of the Mughals can be attributed to various factors, one of which is their robust Jagirdari and Mansabdari system. This system, implemented by Emperor Akbar, played a crucial role in maintaining control over a vast empire and ensuring the loyalty of the nobility. In this essay, we will critically analyze whether the success of the Mughals can indeed be credited to their Jagirdari and Mansabdari system, examining its strengths and weaknesses and providing examples to support our arguments.

1. Strengths of the Jagirdari and Mansabdari system:

(a) Centralized administration: The system established a centralized administrative structure, allowing the Mughals to effectively govern their vast empire. The Mansabdars (military officers) and Jagirdars (land revenue administrators) were appointed by the emperor, ensuring loyalty and obedience.

(b) Revenue generation: The system facilitated revenue generation through the collection of taxes and land revenue. The Jagirdars were responsible for collecting revenues from their assigned territories, which contributed to the financial stability of the empire.

(c) Military strength: The Mansabdari system created a strong military force under the direct control of the emperor. The Mansabdars were not only responsible for collecting revenue but also for maintaining a certain number of soldiers, thus ensuring a disciplined and well-equipped army.

2. Examples of the success of the Jagirdari and Mansabdari system:

(a) Akbar's reign: Emperor Akbar, known for his administrative reforms, implemented the Jagirdari and Mansabdari system successfully. This contributed to the territorial expansion of the empire and the consolidation of power. The Mansabdars played a crucial role in Akbar's victories, as they led the Mughal army to conquer new territories.

(b) Efficient revenue collection: The system ensured efficient revenue collection, which was vital for the economic stability of the empire. The Jagirdars were responsible for assessing and collecting land revenue, which contributed to the overall prosperity of the Mughal Empire.

(c) Social integration: The Jagirdari and Mansabdari system promoted social integration by including individuals from different regions, religions, and backgrounds in the administration. This created a sense of inclusivity and fostered loyalty among the diverse population of the empire.

3. Weaknesses of the Jagirdari and Mansabdari system:

(a) Lack of hereditary succession: The system did not allow for hereditary succession, as the Mansabdars and Jagirdars were appointed by the emperor. This often led to instability and power struggles, as the position was not secured for future generations. The lack of a clear succession plan resulted in frequent changes in administration and potential conflicts.

(b) Corruption and exploitation: The system had loopholes that allowed for corruption and exploitation. Some Jagirdars and Mansabdars abused their power, charging excessive taxes or misappropriating revenue for personal gain. This led to discontent among the common people and weakened the overall effectiveness of the system.

(c) Dependence on individual loyalty: The success of the system relied heavily on the loyalty and competence of the appointed officers. If a Mansabdar or Jagirdar rebelled or proved to be disloyal, it posed a significant threat to the stability of the empire. The system's effectiveness was highly dependent on the personal qualities of the individuals holding these positions.

4. Examples of the weaknesses of the Jagirdari and Mansabdari system:

(a) Succession crises: The lack of hereditary succession often resulted in succession crises, as different factions within the nobility competed for power. This led to internal conflicts and weakened the overall stability of the empire. One such example is the War of Succession following Emperor Aurangzeb's death, which resulted in the decline of the Mughal Empire.

(b) Corruption and exploitation: Instances of corruption and exploitation by Jagirdars and Mansabdars were not uncommon. They would often collect excessive taxes or embezzle revenue, causing economic hardships for the common people. This further contributed to the decline of the empire by eroding trust in the administration.

(c) Rebellion and disloyalty: The system's dependence on individual loyalty made it vulnerable to rebellion and disloyalty. One notable example is the rebellion of Mansabdars under Emperor Jahangir's rule, which threatened the stability of the empire and highlighted the potential weaknesses of the system.

Conclusion
In conclusion, the success of the Mughals cannot be solely attributed to their Jagirdari and Mansabdari system. While the system had strengths such as centralized administration, revenue generation, and military strength, it also had weaknesses such as lack of hereditary succession, corruption, and dependence on individual loyalty. The Mughal Empire's success was the result of a combination of factors, including effective governance, military prowess, cultural integration, and economic prosperity. The Jagirdari and Mansabdari system played a significant role in maintaining control and generating revenue but was not the sole determinant of the Mughals' success.

(b) It was as much the court intrigues as also the defiance of the provincial powers that hastened the decline of the Mughals in the 18th century. Comment. (20 Marks)

Introduction
The Mughal Empire, known for its grandeur and opulence, experienced a decline in the 18th century. This decline was not solely due to external factors, but also a result of court intrigues and the defiance of provincial powers. Court intrigues, characterized by power struggles and political maneuvering within the court, played a significant role in hastening the decline of the Mughals. Simultaneously, the provincial powers, such as the Marathas and the Sikhs, challenged the authority of the Mughal Empire, further contributing to its downfall. This essay will explore the impact of court intrigues and the defiance of provincial powers in the decline of the Mughal Empire, providing examples to support the argument.

1. Court intrigues:

(a) Power struggles among the nobility: The Mughal court was notorious for its internal power struggles, with various factions vying for control and influence. For instance, during the reign of Aurangzeb, his sons Dara Shikoh, Shah Shuja, and Aurangzeb himself engaged in a fierce struggle for the throne. This infighting weakened the empire and diverted attention away from external threats.

(b) Influence of court eunuchs: The court eunuchs, who held significant power and influence, often manipulated the imperial court for personal gain. They would meddle in political affairs, promote their own interests, and create divisions among the nobility. The eunuch, Mohammad Qasim, during the reign of Bahadur Shah I, is a prime example of how court intrigues contributed to the decline of the Mughals.

(c) Factionalism among the nobility: The Mughal nobility, divided into various factions, often pursued their own agendas, leading to a lack of unity and coordination. This factionalism weakened the empire's ability to respond effectively to external threats. An example of this can be seen during the reign of Farrukhsiyar when the Sayyid brothers, Abdullah Khan and Hussain Ali Khan, formed their own faction and manipulated the court for their own gain.

2. Defiance of provincial powers:

(a) Rise of the Marathas: The Marathas, under the leadership of Shivaji and later the Peshwas, challenged the Mughal authority in the Deccan region. They established their own kingdom and engaged in frequent conflicts with the Mughals. The Battle of Panipat in 1761, where the Marathas were decisively defeated by the Afghan invader Ahmad Shah Durrani, showcased the declining power of the Mughals and the rising strength of the Marathas.

(b) Sikh resistance in Punjab: The Sikh community, led by Guru Gobind Singh and later organized into the Khalsa by Banda Bahadur, emerged as a formidable force in Punjab. The Sikhs not only resisted Mughal rule but also conducted raids into Mughal territory. The Battle of Sirhind in 1710, where Banda Bahadur defeated the Mughals, demonstrated the defiance of provincial powers and their impact on the decline of the Mughals.

(c) Bengali rebellion: The Mughal Empire faced a significant rebellion in Bengal, led by Murshid Quli Khan and his successors. The Bengal Nawabs, though nominally recognizing Mughal authority, acted as de facto rulers and withheld revenue from the central treasury. This defiance weakened the Mughal Empire's control over Bengal and further contributed to its decline.

Conclusion
In conclusion, court intrigues and the defiance of provincial powers played a crucial role in hastening the decline of the Mughal Empire in the 18th century. The power struggles and political maneuvering within the court diverted attention from external threats and weakened the empire's ability to respond effectively. Simultaneously, provincial powers such as the Marathas, Sikhs, and Bengali rebels challenged the Mughal authority and eroded the empire's control over vast territories. The decline of the Mughals serves as a reminder of the detrimental impact of internal conflicts and external defiance on the stability and longevity of a once-mighty empire.

(c) Shivaji was not merely a military conqueror but also was an enlightened ruler. Discuss. (15 Marks)

Introduction
Shivaji, also known as Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, was a prominent figure in Indian history. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest military conquerors, but his legacy goes beyond his military prowess. Shivaji was an enlightened ruler who implemented various administrative, social, and cultural reforms that had a lasting impact on his kingdom. This essay will delve into the various aspects of Shivaji's reign that demonstrate his enlightened rule.

1. Administrative reforms: Shivaji introduced several administrative reforms that aimed at improving governance and ensuring efficient administration. He established a well-structured system of governance with a decentralized administration. He divided his kingdom into administrative units called "prants" and appointed efficient administrators known as "mavalis" to govern these regions. This system allowed for better coordination and effective administration at the local level.

Example: Shivaji introduced the concept of "Ashtapradhan Mandal," a council of eight ministers, each responsible for a specific department. This system ensured specialization and division of work, leading to more efficient governance.

2. Justice and law enforcement: Shivaji was known for his commitment to justice and fairness. He implemented a robust system of justice that ensured equal treatment for all, regardless of their social status. He appointed "Nyayadhish" or judges who were known for their impartiality and integrity. Shivaji also established a network of police stations to maintain law and order and protect the rights of the citizens.

Example: Shivaji's administration issued a code of ethics for judges, which emphasized the importance of integrity, impartiality, and adherence to the principles of justice. This code ensured that the judiciary system remained fair and unbiased.

3. Religious tolerance: Shivaji was a staunch believer in religious tolerance and harmony. He promoted religious freedom and ensured that people of all faiths were treated with respect and equality. He granted land and financial support to various religious institutions, including temples, mosques, and gurudwaras. Shivaji also appointed people from different religious backgrounds in his administration, fostering a sense of inclusivity.

Example: Shivaji's famous meeting with the Muslim saint, Shaikh Yaqub Sarfi, showcases his religious tolerance. Despite being a Hindu ruler, Shivaji sought the advice and blessings of the Muslim saint, displaying his respect for different faiths.

4. Economic reforms: Shivaji implemented several economic reforms that aimed at boosting the economy and improving the living conditions of his subjects. He encouraged agriculture and trade by providing incentives, reducing taxes, and ensuring the safety of traders and merchants. Shivaji also introduced measures to improve irrigation systems, which led to increased agricultural productivity.

Example: Shivaji abolished the system of "Sardeshmukhi" and "Chauthai" taxes that were imposed by the Mughals. This reduction in taxes not only relieved the burden on the peasants but also encouraged trade and commerce.

5. Infrastructure development: Shivaji was a visionary leader who recognized the importance of infrastructure development. He undertook various projects to improve transportation, communication, and defense infrastructure. He built forts, roads, and bridges to ensure the safety of his kingdom and facilitate trade.

Example: The construction of the Raigad Fort, the capital of Shivaji's kingdom, is a testament to his focus on infrastructure development. The fort was strategically located and had well-designed defense mechanisms, showcasing Shivaji's commitment to the safety and security of his subjects.

Conclusion
Shivaji's legacy as an enlightened ruler goes beyond his military conquests. His administrative reforms, commitment to justice, religious tolerance, economic reforms, and infrastructure development all demonstrate his enlightened rule. Shivaji's reign laid the foundation for a prosperous and inclusive kingdom and his principles continue to inspire leaders even today. His ability to balance military conquests with enlightened governance makes him a remarkable figure in Indian history.