UPSC Mains Answer PYQ 2022: Sociology Paper 1 (Section- B) | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Q.5. Write short answers of the following questions in about 150 words: (5x10=50)

(a) Critically examine the relevance of Durkheim's views on religion in contemporary society.    (10 Marks)

Emile Durkheim, a prominent French sociologist, viewed religion as a social phenomenon with a significant impact on the solidarity and cohesion of society. He argued that religion serves essential social functions, such as promoting social cohesion, providing moral guidance, and offering emotional support during crises. However, in contemporary society, the relevance of Durkheim's views on religion can be questioned due to the emergence of secularism, the decline in religious participation, and the rise of individualism.
(i) In many western societies, there has been a significant decline in religious participation, and secularism has become more prevalent. This decline may challenge Durkheim's assertion that religion is crucial to social cohesion. However, it can be argued that secularism has not led to a complete breakdown of social order. Instead, secular institutions and ideologies, such as democracy and human rights, have taken on some of the functions previously performed by religion.
(ii) Moreover, the rise of individualism may also challenge Durkheim's view on religion. The contemporary emphasis on personal fulfillment and individual autonomy has led to a decline in the collective rituals and shared beliefs that Durkheim saw as essential to social cohesion. Nevertheless, religion has not disappeared entirely, and many individuals still find meaning and purpose in religious or spiritual practices.
(iii) In addition, Durkheim's views on religion may be more relevant in non-western societies, where religious participation remains high and religious institutions continue to play a significant role in social life. For example, in India, religion continues to be an essential aspect of social identity, and religious institutions play a critical role in providing welfare services and promoting social cohesion.
In conclusion, while the relevance of Durkheim's views on religion in contemporary society may be limited, his ideas still offer valuable insights into the diverse ways religion can shape social life. The changing nature of religious participation and the rise of secularism and individualism have challenged some of Durkheim's assertions, but religion still retains a significant place in many societies, serving essential social functions and contributing to social cohesion. 

(b) Discuss various theoretical perspectives on the family.    (10 Marks)

The family, as a social institution, has been studied and analyzed from various theoretical perspectives in sociology. These perspectives provide different ways of understanding the structure, function, and significance of families in society. Some of the prominent theoretical perspectives on the family include the functionalist perspective, conflict perspective, symbolic interactionist perspective, and feminist perspective.
1. Functionalist Perspective: This perspective views the family as a vital social institution that performs essential functions for the stability and well-being of society. Talcott Parsons, a prominent functionalist theorist, argued that the family serves several critical functions, including socialization of children, regulation of sexual behavior, social and emotional support, and economic cooperation. The family is seen as a relatively stable and harmonious unit that contributes to the overall equilibrium of society.
2. Conflict Perspective: This perspective focuses on the power dynamics and struggles within families and society. It argues that families are not always harmonious units but can be sites of conflict, inequality, and domination. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels suggested that the family, particularly the patriarchal family, perpetuates class inequality and serves the interests of the ruling class. This perspective highlights issues such as domestic violence, gender inequality, and economic exploitation within families.
3. Symbolic Interactionist Perspective: This perspective emphasizes the importance of communication, interaction, and shared meanings in understanding family dynamics. It focuses on the micro-level processes through which family members create, maintain, and negotiate their relationships and identities. Symbolic interactionists argue that families are not static structures but constantly evolving through the interactions and interpretations of family members. For example, the way parents communicate with their children about gender roles and expectations can shape their children's understanding of their gender identity.
4. Feminist Perspective: This perspective critiques the traditional, male-dominated views of the family and highlights the experiences and perspectives of women within families. Feminist theorists argue that the family has been a site of gender inequality and oppression, particularly for women. They focus on issues such as domestic labor, childcare, and emotional work, which are often undervalued and disproportionately shouldered by women. This perspective also addresses the diversity of family forms, such as single-parent families, LGBTQ+ families, and families of choice, which challenge the traditional nuclear family model.
Overall, these theoretical perspectives provide valuable insights into the complexities of the family as a social institution. Each perspective offers a different lens through which to understand and analyze the diverse experiences, functions, and challenges of families in contemporary society. 

(c) Explain the implications of feminization of work in the developing societies.    (10 Marks)

The feminization of work in developing societies refers to the increasing participation of women in the labor force and their growing prominence in various sectors of the economy. This trend has significant implications for the economic, social, and cultural aspects of these societies.
(i) Economically, the feminization of work has led to an increase in the overall productivity and income levels of developing societies. Women's participation in the labor force has contributed to the growth of various sectors, such as the garment industry, agriculture, and the service sector. For example, in Bangladesh, the growth of the garment industry has been largely driven by the employment of women workers. This, in turn, has increased the country's export earnings and foreign exchange reserves.
(ii) Socially, the feminization of work has led to greater gender equality and women's empowerment. As women become more financially independent, they gain greater control over their lives and decision-making power within the household. This has the potential to break traditional gender roles and challenge patriarchal norms. For instance, in Kerala, India, the increase in women's participation in the labor force has led to a significant improvement in their social status and bargaining power within the family.
(iii) However, the feminization of work has also exposed women to various forms of exploitation and discrimination at the workplace. Many women work in precarious, low-paid, and informal jobs without adequate job security, social protection, or access to social services. In addition, women often face gender-based wage gaps and occupational segregation, which limit their opportunities for upward mobility. For example, in the Philippines, women working in the electronics industry often face long hours, low wages, and hazardous working conditions.
(iv) Culturally, the feminization of work has challenged traditional gender norms and expectations about women's roles in society. As women become more visible in the public sphere, they contribute to changing perceptions about their capabilities and aspirations. However, this can also lead to a backlash and resistance from conservative elements within society who perceive these changes as a threat to their cultural values and traditions.
In conclusion, the feminization of work in developing societies has both positive and negative implications. While it has contributed to economic growth, gender equality, and women's empowerment, it has also exposed women to exploitation, discrimination, and cultural resistance. To ensure that the benefits of this trend are fairly distributed and sustained, it is essential for governments and other stakeholders to implement policies that promote decent work, gender equality, and social protection for all workers, particularly women. 

(d) Write a note on global trends of secularization.    (10 Marks)

Secularization is a process through which religious beliefs, practices, and institutions lose their social significance and influence in the modern world. The global trends of secularization can be seen as a consequence of modernization, urbanization, and rationalization, which has led to the decline of religious authority and the emergence of secular societies. In the context of UPSC Sociology optionals, it is essential to understand the different dimensions of secularization and its impact on societies worldwide.
(i) One of the primary global trends of secularization is the decline in religious participation and affiliation. In many Western countries like the United States, Europe, and Australia, there has been a significant decrease in church attendance, religious ceremonies, and people identifying themselves as religious. For instance, the Pew Research Center reported that the percentage of Americans who identify as religiously unaffiliated has grown from 7% in 1972 to 28% in 2019.
(ii) Another trend is the privatization of religion, where religious beliefs and practices are becoming more personal and individualistic, rather than being part of a larger community or institution. This shift can be attributed to the influence of modernity, individualism, and consumerism, which encourage people to choose their beliefs rather than conforming to traditional religious norms.
(iii) Secularization has also led to the differentiation of social institutions, as religion no longer dominates all aspects of life. For example, education, politics, and law have become more secular, with religious influence being limited or separated from these spheres. A notable example is the separation of church and state in many Western democracies, which ensures that religion does not interfere with government policies and decision-making.
However, the global trends of secularization are not uniform, and in some countries, there has been a resurgence of religious movements and identities. In countries like India, religious nationalism has gained prominence, leading to the rise of political parties that advocate for a stronger role of religion in the public sphere. Similarly, the Islamic resurgence in the Middle East and North Africa has led to the growth of religious movements that challenge secular ideologies and governance.
In conclusion, the global trends of secularization have led to the decline of religious authority and the emergence of secular societies in many parts of the world. However, the process is not uniform, and in some regions, religion continues to play a significant role in shaping social, political, and cultural life. Understanding these trends and their implications is crucial for a comprehensive analysis of contemporary societies and their future trajectories. 

(e) Trace the trajectory of development perspectives on social change.    (10 Marks)

The trajectory of development perspectives on social change has evolved significantly over time, reflecting shifts in both theoretical understandings and practical approaches to addressing social issues. It is crucial to recognize the impact of these perspectives on social change in order to better understand their implications for policy and practice.
(i) Initially, the modernization perspective dominated development thinking, which emphasized economic growth and industrialization as key drivers of social change. This perspective, inspired by the experiences of Western countries, assumed that traditional societies could transform into modern ones through the adoption of Western models of development. However, over time, criticisms emerged regarding the ethnocentric nature of this approach, as well as its failure to address persistent inequalities and environmental degradation.
(ii) In response, dependency theories emerged in the 1960s and 1970s, arguing that underdevelopment in the Global South was a result of exploitation by the Global North. These perspectives highlighted the structural constraints faced by developing countries and called for a more equitable international system to promote social change. However, dependency theories were also criticized for overemphasizing external factors and neglecting the role of internal dynamics in shaping development outcomes.
(iii) The 1980s and 1990s saw the rise of neoliberalism, which advocated for market-oriented policies and structural adjustment programs to promote social change. This approach emphasized the role of individual choices and market forces in driving development, often at the expense of state intervention and social welfare programs. Critics argued that this approach led to increased inequality, social dislocation, and environmental degradation.
(iv) In recent years, there has been a growing emphasis on participatory, people-centered approaches to development that recognize the importance of local knowledge and agency in shaping social change. This perspective acknowledges the need for a more holistic understanding of development, incorporating aspects such as gender, human rights, and environmental sustainability. Additionally, the concept of sustainable development has gained traction, emphasizing the need for development policies that balance economic, social, and environmental concerns.
In conclusion, the trajectory of development perspectives on social change has evolved from a narrow focus on economic growth and modernization to a more nuanced understanding of the complex, interconnected factors that shape development outcomes. A critical engagement with these perspectives is essential for formulating effective policies and interventions that promote equitable, sustainable social change. 

George Herbert Mead, an American sociologist, and philosopher, believed that the self is a socially constructed entity that emerges when individuals become self-conscious. According to Mead, self-consciousness arises when individuals realize that they are distinct beings with unique experiences and perspectives. This realization occurs through a process of social interaction and symbolic communication with others.
(i) Mead's theory of self can be understood through his concept of the 'I' and the 'Me.' The 'I' represents the spontaneous, impulsive, and individual aspect of a person, while the 'Me' represents the internalized social norms, values, and expectations that are learned through interactions with others. The 'I' and the 'Me' work together to form the self, with the 'I' providing the individual's unique perspective and the 'Me' providing the social context in which the individual operates.
(ii) Mead argues that the development of self begins in early childhood when children start to play and engage in role-taking. Role-taking is the process of assuming and understanding the roles of other people within a social situation. For example, a child may pretend to be a teacher, a doctor, or a parent, and in doing so, they learn about the expectations and behaviors associated with those roles. As children grow older, they start to engage in more complex forms of role-taking, such as participating in games with rules and understanding the perspectives of multiple individuals simultaneously.
(iii) Another important concept in Mead's theory is the 'generalized other.' The generalized other represents the collective expectations and values of society, which individuals internalize and use to guide their behavior. As individuals interact with various social groups, they develop a sense of the generalized other, which helps them understand how they should behave in different social contexts.
In conclusion, Mead's theory of self emphasizes the importance of social interaction and symbolic communication in the development of self-consciousness. The self is not an isolated, static entity but rather a dynamic and evolving construct shaped by the ongoing process of social interaction. Understanding Mead's theory can be helpful in the context of UPSC Sociology optionals, as it provides insights into the role of social norms, expectations, and symbolic communication in shaping individuals' behaviors and perspectives. 

(b) Analyse the nature of transition from ideology to identify politics in India.    (20 Marks)

The transition from ideology to identity politics in India has been a significant shift in the political landscape of the country. This transition can be understood by analyzing the changing nature of political parties, mobilization strategies, and electoral politics. In the following discussion, we will try to understand this transition with reference to some examples.
1. Decline of Ideology-based politics: In the early years of independent India, political parties, particularly the Indian National Congress, were driven by a strong ideological commitment to secularism, socialism, and democracy. However, this commitment weakened over time, as the Congress faced internal divisions and the rise of regional and caste-based parties. The decline of ideology-based politics created a vacuum that was filled by identity-based politics.
2. Emergence of identity-based parties: The rise of regional and caste-based parties, such as the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP), Samajwadi Party (SP), and the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK), shifted the focus of electoral politics from ideology to identity. These parties primarily mobilized voters based on their caste, religion, or regional affiliations, rather than on the basis of a coherent ideological program.
3. Identity-based mobilization: The strategy of mobilizing voters based on their identity has been successful in winning elections in India. For example, the BSP, which was founded with the objective of representing the interests of the Dalit (lower caste) community, has managed to form governments in Uttar Pradesh, India's most populous state, multiple times. Similarly, the SP has won elections in Uttar Pradesh by appealing to the Yadav (OBC) caste and Muslim communities.
4. Coalition politics and identity politics: The era of coalition politics in India, which began in the late 1980s, further strengthened the role of identity politics. Smaller parties with a strong base in specific caste or regional groups started playing a crucial role in the formation of governments at the central level. As a result, these parties often prioritized their identity-based agendas over broader ideological goals.
5. Identity politics and the rise of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP): The BJP, which was initially founded as a right-wing party committed to Hindu nationalism, has also adapted its strategies to the changing political landscape in India. While the party's core ideology remains important, it has also embraced identity politics by forging alliances with regional and caste-based parties and by appealing to various identity groups like the Other Backward Classes (OBCs), Scheduled Castes (SCs), and Scheduled Tribes (STs).
6. Identity politics and social movements: The transition from ideology to identity politics is not limited to electoral politics alone. Social movements in India, such as the Patidar agitation in Gujarat or the Jat agitation in Haryana, have also been driven by identity-based demands, rather than ideological goals.
In conclusion, the transition from ideology to identity politics in India can be attributed to the decline of ideology-based parties, the rise of regional and caste-based parties, the success of identity-based mobilization strategies, the era of coalition politics, and the changing nature of social movements. This shift has had far-reaching implications for India's democracy, as it has led to the fragmentation of the political landscape and the increasing dominance of identity-based issues in electoral politics. 

(c) How do little tradition and great tradition coexist in contemporary Indian society?    (10 Marks)

Little tradition and great tradition coexist in contemporary Indian society through a constant process of interaction, integration, and reinterpretation. Little tradition refers to the local, folk, or village-level cultural practices, beliefs, and rituals, while great tradition refers to the classical, elite, or pan-Indian cultural elements, such as Sanskrit literature, Brahmanical rituals, and the Hindu epics. The coexistence of these traditions can be understood through the following aspects:
1. Interdependence: Little tradition and great tradition often influence each other and are interdependent. For instance, the great tradition of Hinduism has been shaped by the incorporation of various local deities, folk rituals, and beliefs of the little tradition. Conversely, the little tradition has been influenced by the great tradition through the adoption of classical elements into local practices, such as incorporating stories from the Hindu epics into local folklore.
Example: The worship of local deities like Gramadevata, Sheetaladevi, and other village gods and goddesses, which are part of the little tradition, have been incorporated into the larger pantheon of Hinduism, which is part of the great tradition.
2. Syncretism: The coexistence of little and great traditions in Indian society has led to a syncretic culture where elements from both traditions blend and merge. This is evident in art, architecture, music, dance, and other cultural expressions.
Example: The classical dance form of Bharatanatyam, which is part of the great tradition, has incorporated various elements of folk dances from the Tamil Nadu region, which are part of the little tradition.
3. Adaptation and reinterpretation: Indian society, being diverse and pluralistic, has witnessed a continuous process of adaptation and reinterpretation of both little and great traditions in response to changing social, political, and economic realities.
Example: With the rise of social reform movements in the 19th and 20th centuries, many elements of the little tradition, such as caste-based practices and rituals, were reinterpreted through the lens of modernity and social justice, leading to changes in both little and great traditions.
4. Conflict and negotiation: The coexistence of little and great traditions has not always been harmonious. At times, there have been conflicts and tensions between the two, particularly when the great tradition tries to assert its dominance over the little tradition. However, Indian society has often resolved such conflicts through negotiation and compromise.
Example: The conflict between the Brahmanical great tradition and the Dalit little tradition has been a recurring theme in Indian history. However, in recent times, the Dalit community has been successful in asserting their cultural rights and identity, leading to a more inclusive understanding of Indian culture that encompasses both traditions.
5. Globalization and cultural exchange: In contemporary times, the influence of globalization has brought about new forms of cultural exchange between the little and great traditions. This has led to greater awareness, appreciation, and adaptation of both traditions, as well as the emergence of new cultural forms that draw from both.
Example: The popularity of Indian classical music and folk music on the global stage has resulted in collaborations between Indian artists and international musicians, leading to the creation of fusion music that incorporates elements of both little and great traditions.
In conclusion, the coexistence of little and great traditions in contemporary Indian society is a dynamic and evolving process, marked by interaction, integration, and reinterpretation. This coexistence has enriched Indian culture, making it diverse, pluralistic, and resilient. 

Talcott Parsons was an American sociologist who contributed significantly to the field of sociology by developing the theory of a social system. Parsons believed that society is a complex system of interdependent parts that work together to maintain the overall stability and equilibrium of the system. His views on the social system can be critically analyzed in terms of their functionalist approach, the concept of pattern variables, and the AGIL paradigm.
1. Functionalist Approach: Parsons was heavily influenced by the functionalist perspective in sociology, which focuses on the functions and interdependence of various institutions and structures within society. Parsons argued that society is made up of various subsystems that perform specific functions to maintain the stability and equilibrium of the whole system. For example, the family performs the function of socializing individuals, whereas the education system imparts knowledge and skills to individuals, and the economic system ensures the production and distribution of goods and services.
Critique: The functionalist approach has been criticized for its conservative nature, as it tends to assume that existing social structures are functional and necessary for the survival of society. This perspective downplays the role of conflict, power, and inequality in society and does not adequately address social change or the possibility of alternative social arrangements.
2. Pattern Variables: Parsons introduced the concept of pattern variables to explain individual choices and actions within the social system. These variables include affectivity vs. affective neutrality, diffuseness vs. specificity, particularism vs. universalism, ascription vs. achievement, and self-orientation vs. collectivity orientation. For example, in a traditional society, individuals might prioritize ascription-based criteria (e.g., kinship, caste) over achievement-based criteria (e.g., merit, skills) in choosing a marriage partner.
Critique: Critics argue that the concept of pattern variables is overly deterministic and does not account for individual agency or the complexity of social interactions. Moreover, Parsons' dichotomous classification of pattern variables has been criticized for oversimplifying the diverse range of cultural values and practices found in different societies.
3. AGIL Paradigm: Parsons proposed the AGIL (Adaptation, Goal Attainment, Integration, and Latency) paradigm as a framework for understanding the functional prerequisites of any social system. According to this model, any social system must fulfill four basic functions to survive: Adaptation (society's ability to adapt to its environment), Goal Attainment (society's ability to set and achieve goals), Integration (society's ability to maintain cohesion and resolve conflicts), and Latency (society's ability to maintain cultural patterns and values).
Critique: The AGIL paradigm has been criticized for its abstract nature and lack of empirical grounding. Critics also argue that the AGIL framework is too rigid and does not adequately account for the complexity and diversity of social systems or the role of social change and conflict in society.
In conclusion, Talcott Parsons' views on society as a social system have undoubtedly contributed significantly to the development of sociological theory. However, his functionalist approach, the concept of pattern variables, and the AGIL paradigm have also been subject to various criticisms for their deterministic, conservative, and oversimplified nature. Nonetheless, Parsons' ideas continue to provide valuable insights into the study of society and social systems. 

(b) Discuss how 'environmentalism' can be explained with new social movements approach.    (20 Marks)

The New Social Movements (NSM) approach emerged in the 1960s and 1970s as a reaction to the limitations of traditional Marxist theories in explaining the diverse range of social movements occurring in the post-industrial societies. NSM theorists argue that these new social movements, such as environmentalism, feminism, and LGBTQ+ rights, are distinct from earlier movements, such as labor and peasant movements, as they are not primarily concerned with material or economic issues but rather with issues of identity, culture, and quality of life. In this context, environmentalism can be explained by the NSM approach through several key aspects, including the shift in focus from economic to cultural issues, the emphasis on participatory democracy, and the role of new communication technologies.
1. Shift in focus from economic to cultural issues: Environmentalism, as a new social movement, focuses on the protection and preservation of the environment and natural resources for future generations. It is not just about the economic exploitation of resources but also about the cultural and symbolic meanings attached to nature, such as the sacredness of forests or the intrinsic value of biodiversity. This shift in focus represents a broader change in society, where traditional economic and class-based conflicts are replaced by new issues related to the environment, gender, race, and sexual orientation.
2. Emphasis on participatory democracy: Environmental movements often advocate for a more direct and participatory form of democracy, where citizens have a greater say in decision-making processes, especially in matters that affect the environment. This can be seen in the formation of local environmental groups, public consultations on environmental policies, and the use of referendums and citizen initiatives to address environmental concerns. The NSM approach, therefore, highlights the importance of civil society and grassroots activism in promoting environmentalism and challenging the power of traditional institutions and elites.
3. Role of new communication technologies: The emergence of new communication technologies, such as the internet and social media, has played a significant role in the growth and development of environmental movements. These technologies have allowed environmental activists to connect with like-minded individuals, share information and resources, and mobilize support for their cause on a global scale. The NSM approach recognizes the importance of these new technologies in shaping the strategies and tactics of environmental movements, as well as their ability to influence public opinion and policy-making.
4. Cross-national and transnational networks: Environmental problems often transcend national boundaries, necessitating the formation of cross-national and transnational alliances among environmental activists and organizations. The NSM approach emphasizes the importance of these networks in fostering global solidarity and cooperation on environmental issues, as well as in promoting the diffusion of environmental norms and practices across different societies. Examples of such networks include the international Earth Day celebrations, the World Wildlife Fund, and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.
5. Collective identity and the role of emotions: NSM theorists argue that new social movements, including environmentalism, are characterized by a strong sense of collective identity and shared emotions among their members. These emotions, such as fear, anger, and hope, can motivate individuals to join environmental movements and participate in collective action. The NSM approach, therefore, highlights the importance of emotions and identity in understanding the dynamics and outcomes of environmental movements.
In conclusion, the New Social Movements approach offers a comprehensive framework for understanding the emergence and development of environmentalism as a distinct social movement. By focusing on the shift in focus from economic to cultural issues, the emphasis on participatory democracy, the role of new communication technologies, and the formation of cross-national and transnational networks, the NSM approach helps us to grasp the complexity and diversity of environmental movements in the contemporary world. 

(c) Illustrate with examples the role of pressure groups in the formulation of social policies.    (10 Marks)

Pressure groups play a significant role in the formulation of social policies by influencing the decision-making process, shaping public opinion, and representing the interests of various sections of society. They work to create awareness about social issues, mobilize public opinion, and persuade policymakers to address these issues through appropriate policies.
1. Women's rights groups: Groups like the National Commission for Women, All India Democratic Women's Association, and others have been actively involved in advocating for women's rights in India. They have played a crucial role in the formulation of policies like the Domestic Violence Act (2005), the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition, and Redressal) Act (2013), and the recent amendment to the Maternity Benefit Act (2017), which increased maternity leave from 12 to 26 weeks.
2. Environmental groups: Organizations like the Centre for Science and Environment, Greenpeace, and others have been instrumental in influencing environmental policies in India. For instance, they have played a significant role in shaping the National Environment Policy (2006) and pushing for stricter emission norms for industries and vehicles, contributing to the formulation of the National Clean Air Programme (2019).
3. Child rights groups: Groups like Save the Children, Child Rights and You, and the National Commission for Protection of Child Rights have actively participated in the formulation of policies related to child welfare. They have contributed to the development of policies such as the Right to Education Act (2009), which guarantees free and compulsory education to all children aged 6 to 14 years, and the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) program, which addresses the nutritional and health needs of children below six years and pregnant and lactating women.
4. Dalit and Adivasi rights groups: Organizations like the National Campaign on Dalit Human Rights, Satyashodhak, and Adivasi Mahasabha have been working towards the upliftment of the marginalized sections of society. They have played a significant role in the formulation of policies like the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act (1989), the Forest Rights Act (2006), and the recent amendment to the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act (2018), which strengthened the provisions related to the prevention of atrocities against these communities.
5. Disability rights groups: Organizations like the National Association for the Blind, Disabled People's International, and others have worked towards promoting the rights of persons with disabilities. They have influenced the formulation of the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act (2016), which replaced the earlier Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights, and Full Participation) Act (1995). The new act expanded the definition of disability, increased reservation in educational institutions and government jobs, and ensured accessibility in public buildings and transportation.
These examples show how pressure groups play a vital role in influencing the formulation of social policies in various areas, ensuring that the concerns and needs of different sections of society are taken into account. They act as a bridge between the government and the people, keeping the policymakers accountable and responsive to the demands and aspirations of the citizens. 

The democratization of science and technology refers to the process of making scientific knowledge and technological advancements accessible, understandable, and relevant to all sections of society, irrespective of their social, economic, or cultural backgrounds. This process aims at breaking down the barriers between the scientific community and the general public, fostering an environment where diverse perspectives and knowledge systems can contribute to the development of science and technology.
Sociologists argue that democratization of science and technology is essential for achieving inclusive development, as it ensures that the benefits of scientific advancements are shared by all members of society, and not just limited to a privileged few. There are several reasons for this argument:
1. Equitable access to knowledge: Democratization of science and technology ensures that all individuals, regardless of their socio-economic backgrounds, have access to scientific knowledge and technological innovations. This helps in bridging the digital divide and knowledge gap that exists between the privileged and the marginalized sections of society. By providing equal opportunities for learning and innovation, democratization fosters social inclusivity and reduces inequalities.
2. Participatory approach: Democratization of science and technology encourages a more participatory approach to research and innovation. It involves engaging with local communities, seeking their inputs, and incorporating their traditional knowledge and practices into the scientific process. This helps in ensuring that the innovations and solutions developed are relevant to the needs of the people, and are culturally and contextually appropriate.
3. Empowerment and capacity building: Democratization of science and technology empowers individuals and communities by providing them with the knowledge and skills required to address their own needs and challenges. It enables them to participate effectively in decision-making processes related to science and technology and contribute to the development of policies and programs that affect their lives. This, in turn, leads to the creation of a more informed and proactive citizenry, capable of influencing the direction of scientific research and technological innovation.
4. Ethical considerations: Democratization of science and technology also helps in addressing ethical concerns related to scientific research and technological development. By involving diverse stakeholders in the decision-making process, it ensures that the potential social, economic, and environmental impacts of scientific and technological advancements are thoroughly assessed and taken into consideration. This helps in minimizing any potential harm to individuals, communities, or the environment, and promotes responsible innovation.
Examples of democratization of science and technology include:
1. Citizen science projects, where the general public is involved in the collection and analysis of scientific data, such as monitoring air quality, tracking biodiversity, or studying climate change.
2. Open access publications and open-source software, which make scientific research and technological innovations freely accessible to all, thereby promoting knowledge sharing and collaboration.
3. Science festivals, workshops, and public lectures that aim to engage the general public in scientific discussions, raise awareness about the importance of science and technology, and inspire curiosity and interest in scientific pursuits.
4. Community-based technology development projects, where local communities are involved in the design, development, and implementation of technologies that address their specific needs and challenges.
In conclusion, the democratization of science and technology is crucial for achieving inclusive development. By promoting equitable access to knowledge, fostering a participatory approach, empowering individuals and communities, and addressing ethical concerns, democratization ensures that the benefits of scientific advancements are shared by all members of society. This, in turn, contributes to the overall social, economic, and environmental well-being of the nation. 

(b) Are traditional social institutions getting weakened as agents of social change in the contemporary society? Substantiate.    (20 Marks)

Yes, traditional social institutions are getting weakened as agents of social change in contemporary society. This can be substantiated through the following points:
1. Changing family structures: In the past, the joint family system was a strong institution that regulated social norms and values. However, with the rise in urbanization, nuclear families have become more prevalent, weakening the authority of the joint family system. As a result, individuals have become more independent and open to new ideas, fostering social change.
2. Declining influence of religion: Religion has always played a significant role in shaping societal values and behaviors. However, in contemporary society, religious institutions' influence has been waning due to increasing secularization, rational thinking, and scientific explanations replacing superstitions. This has led to a more progressive society that challenges traditional norms and values.
3. Education and awareness: The spread of education has led to increased awareness about social issues and the need for change. People are more informed and critical of societal norms, leading to the questioning and reformation of traditional practices.
4. Impact of mass media: With the advent of mass media, traditional social institutions have lost their monopoly over the dissemination of information and ideas. Mass media exposes people to alternative perspectives, encouraging them to question and challenge established norms and customs, thus promoting social change.
5. Globalization: The interconnectedness of nations and cultures through globalization has led to the cross-cultural exchange of ideas and values. Exposure to different ways of life has encouraged people to reevaluate their own traditions and customs, leading to social change.
6. Legal reforms: The state has played an essential role in promoting social change by enacting laws that challenge traditional practices. For example, the abolition of untouchability, dowry, and sati in India has been instrumental in transforming societal attitudes and practices.

7. Civil society organizations: Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and other civil society groups have emerged as significant agents of social change by raising awareness and advocating for reforms in various social issues, such as gender equality, child rights, and environmental protection.
Examples:
(i) The #MeToo movement has challenged traditional patriarchal norms and promoted awareness about sexual harassment and gender equality, leading to social change.
(ii) The LGBTQ+ rights movement has led to the gradual acceptance and recognition of diverse sexual orientations and gender identities, bringing about a significant shift in societal attitudes and legal systems.
(iii) Environmental movements like the Fridays for Future have mobilized people across the globe to demand action against climate change, leading to a greater emphasis on sustainable development and environmental conservation.
In conclusion, traditional social institutions have been weakened as agents of social change in contemporary society due to various factors like urbanization, education, mass media, globalization, legal reforms, and the emergence of civil society organizations. These factors have contributed to a more progressive and dynamic society where people are more open to questioning and challenging established norms and values. 

(c) How do you understand the relationship between patriarchy and social development?    (10 Marks)

The relationship between patriarchy and social development can be understood through the lens of sociology, which examines the social structures and cultural norms that perpetuate gender inequality. Patriarchy refers to a social system where men hold power and authority over women, dominating in various social, economic, and political spheres. Social development, on the other hand, refers to the process of improving the well-being of every individual in society, by addressing issues such as poverty, education, health, and social inclusion.
The relationship between patriarchy and social development can be analyzed using the following points:
1. Obstacle to women's empowerment: Patriarchy creates barriers for women's participation in various social, economic, and political arenas, which hinders their social development. For instance, in a patriarchal society, women often face discrimination in the workplace, which limits their career opportunities and financial independence. This perpetuates a cycle of dependency on men, which restricts the social development of women.
2. Reinforcement of gender stereotypes: Patriarchy perpetuates traditional gender roles and stereotypes, which affect not only women but also men. For example, women are often expected to prioritize domestic responsibilities over career aspirations, while men are expected to be the primary breadwinners in the family. This restricts the ability of both genders to explore alternative roles and lifestyles, limiting their social development.
3. Impact on education: In many patriarchal societies, girls often receive less access to education than boys, which affects their social development. For instance, in rural India, girls may be taken out of school to help with domestic chores or to get married at a young age. This deprives them of the opportunity to develop their skills and knowledge, which in turn affects their economic prospects and social mobility.
4. Violence against women: Patriarchy is often associated with increased levels of violence against women, such as domestic violence, sexual harassment, and assault. This not only poses a threat to women's physical and mental health, but also hinders their social development, as they may become isolated and fearful of participating in public life.
5. Influence on policy-making: In a patriarchal society, men often dominate decision-making positions in government and other institutions, which can lead to policies and laws that prioritize the interests of men over women. This can hinder social development by perpetuating gender inequalities and limiting the resources and opportunities available to women.
Examples:
(i) The practice of dowry in India is an example of patriarchy's influence on social development. The custom of paying dowry often results in the economic exploitation and violence against women, hindering their social progress and reinforcing gender inequality.
(ii) The gender pay gap is another example of how patriarchy affects social development. In many countries, women earn significantly less than men for the same work, which limits their financial independence and perpetuates gender-based economic disparities.
(iii) The lack of representation of women in political leadership positions is another example of patriarchy's impact on social development. This underrepresentation can lead to policies that do not adequately address the needs and concerns of women, hindering their social progress.
In conclusion, patriarchy has a significant impact on social development by perpetuating gender inequality and limiting the opportunities and resources available to women. Addressing and dismantling patriarchal structures and norms is crucial for achieving social development and ensuring equal opportunities for both men and women.