UPSC Mains Answer PYQ 2023: PSIR Paper 1 (Section- A) | PSIR Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Section - A

Q1: Comment on the following in about 150 words each:     (10x5=50)
(a) Normative approach in Political Science
Ans: 
Introduction: 
The normative approach in political science involves evaluating and prescribing what ought to be, based on ethical and moral principles. It seeks to identify the ideal principles, values, and norms that should guide political decisions and actions.

Key Points:

• Ethical Frameworks: Normative political theory often relies on various ethical frameworks such as utilitarianism, deontology, and virtue ethics to assess political systems and policies.

• Justice and Fairness: One of the central concerns of normative political theory is the concept of justice. It explores questions of fairness, equality, and distributive justice, often addressing issues like income inequality and social welfare policies.

• Democratic Values: Normative theory frequently examines the principles of democracy, scrutinizing the normative aspects of free and fair elections, political participation, and human rights.

• Examples: An example of normative political theory can be seen in John Rawls' "Theory of Justice." Rawls proposed the original position thought experiment, where rational individuals in an imaginary 'veil of ignorance' would design a just society without knowing their own attributes. This thought experiment illustrates the pursuit of fairness and impartiality in political decision-making.

Conclusion: 
The normative approach plays a vital role in guiding political decisions and policies toward morally justifiable outcomes. It provides a framework for assessing political practices, institutions, and policies in terms of their ethical foundations, helping to shape more equitable and just societies.

(b) Multicultural perspective on rights
Ans: 
Introduction: 
A multicultural perspective on rights acknowledges the diversity of cultures within a society and explores how human rights can be understood and protected in a way that respects and accommodates cultural differences.

Key Points:

• Cultural Relativism: Multiculturalism recognizes that different cultures may have distinct values, traditions, and beliefs. Cultural relativism is a fundamental concept in this perspective, asserting that the definition and interpretation of rights may vary across cultures.

• Intersectionality: Multiculturalism considers the intersection of various identities, such as race, gender, religion, and sexual orientation. It recognizes that individuals may belong to multiple cultural groups, leading to complex rights considerations.

• Examples: In Canada, multiculturalism is an official policy that promotes the preservation and celebration of various cultural heritages while protecting individual rights. This approach respects diverse identities and backgrounds, striving to ensure equal opportunities for all citizens.

• Challenges: Balancing cultural rights with universal human rights can be challenging. In cases where cultural practices clash with fundamental human rights (e.g., gender-based violence or discrimination), societies must navigate complex ethical questions.

Conclusion: 
A multicultural perspective on rights enriches the discourse on human rights by acknowledging the plurality of human experiences and identities. It calls for a more inclusive and flexible understanding of rights that respects cultural diversity while upholding fundamental principles of equality and dignity.

(c) State of Nature as State of War (Hobbes)
Ans: 
Introduction: 
Thomas Hobbes, a prominent political philosopher, introduced the concept of the "state of nature" as a state of war in his work, "Leviathan." This concept provides a theoretical basis for understanding human behavior and the necessity of government.

Key Points:

• State of Nature: Hobbes posited that in the state of nature, where there is no government or authority, human beings exist in a condition of constant conflict and competition. Life in this state is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short."

• Social Contract: To escape the state of nature, Hobbes argued that individuals enter into a social contract, surrendering some of their natural rights to a sovereign authority. This authority ensures order, security, and the protection of citizens.

• Examples: Hobbes' ideas influenced the development of modern political thought and the establishment of centralized states. His theory provides a justification for the existence of strong governments and the importance of law and order.

• Criticism: Critics argue that Hobbes' pessimistic view of human nature is overly bleak and that human cooperation and societies with less authoritarian rule exist without descending into constant warfare.

Conclusion: 
Hobbes' concept of the state of nature as a state of war highlights the fundamental role of government in maintaining order and preventing chaos. It serves as a cornerstone for discussions on the nature of political authority and the social contract.

(d) Foucault’s concept of power
Ans: 
Introduction: 
Michel Foucault, a prominent French philosopher and social theorist, introduced a unique perspective on power that challenges traditional notions. His concept of power is influential in understanding the dynamics of control and influence in modern society.

Key Points:

• Power as a Relational Concept: Foucault argued that power is not a fixed entity held by a particular group but is a dynamic, relational concept. It is exercised in various social contexts and can be both productive and repressive.

• Discourse and Knowledge: Foucault emphasized the role of discourse in shaping power. Institutions, practices, and knowledge systems construct and perpetuate power relations. He introduced the idea of "discursive formations" that shape our understanding of reality.

• Examples: Foucault's ideas have been applied in various fields, including sociology, political science, and cultural studies. For instance, his analysis of the medical and psychiatric professions demonstrates how they exercise power over individuals through the classification and normalization of behavior.

• Critique of Totalizing Theories: Foucault's work challenges totalizing theories of power and highlights the need to examine specific contexts and the ways power operates within them. This approach has been instrumental in promoting a more nuanced analysis of power dynamics.

Conclusion: 
Foucault's concept of power as a dynamic and context-dependent force has had a profound impact on the social sciences. It encourages scholars to explore the complex interplay of power in various domains and recognize that power is not solely about domination but also the production of knowledge and subjectivity.

(e) Decline of political theory
Ans: 
Introduction: 
The concept of the decline of political theory refers to the perception that traditional political theory, as a field of study and practice, is facing challenges and undergoing transformations in contemporary times.

Key Points:

• Critique of Grand Narratives: Some scholars argue that the decline of political theory is linked to the skepticism surrounding grand, universal theories of politics. Postmodernism and post-structuralism have raised doubts about the applicability of such theories in an era of cultural diversity and complexity.

• Interdisciplinarity: Political theory has increasingly engaged with other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, and economics, blurring traditional boundaries. This interdisciplinary approach has expanded the scope of political analysis.

• Focus on Applied Ethics: Political theory has shifted towards applied ethics, exploring practical issues like environmental ethics, bioethics, and global justice. This shift reflects a growing emphasis on the real-world relevance of political philosophy.

• Examples: The decline of political theory can be seen in the diversification of topics and approaches within the field. Contemporary political theorists often address issues like global governance, multiculturalism, and human rights, reflecting evolving societal concerns.

Conclusion: 
While traditional political theory may face challenges, it is not in decline but in a state of transformation. It is adapting to the changing needs and questions of society, embracing interdisciplinary perspectives, and focusing on practical ethical dilemmas that shape the modern political landscape. This evolution ensures the continued relevance of political theory in addressing contemporary political issues.

Q2:
(a) Success of contemporary democracies lies in the State limiting its own power. Explain.     (20 Marks)
Ans: 
Introduction: 
Contemporary democracies have evolved with a key principle in mind: limiting the power of the state. This principle is crucial for the success of democracies and is rooted in political theory and historical lessons.

Limiting Tyranny and Protecting Rights:

• The concept of limiting state power is deeply rooted in the political philosophy of thinkers like John Locke and Montesquieu. Locke's idea of a social contract stressed that the state exists to protect individual rights and, when it oversteps its bounds, can be challenged by the people. This idea underpins the foundation of modern democracies.

• In practice, this limitation on state power manifests through mechanisms such as constitutionalism, the separation of powers, and the rule of law. These mechanisms are designed to prevent the concentration of power in the hands of a few, ensuring that governments are held accountable to their citizens.

Preserving Individual Freedom:

• The success of democracies hinges on individual freedom. Limiting state power ensures that citizens can express their opinions, associate freely, and pursue their own interests without undue interference. This is exemplified by the Bill of Rights in the United States, which protects citizens from government overreach.

• In countries where the state does not limit its power, authoritarianism often prevails, leading to censorship, oppression, and the suppression of dissent. A contemporary example is China, where strict government control limits individual freedoms and stifles political opposition.

Conclusion: 
The success of contemporary democracies is intrinsically linked to the state's ability to limit its own power. By adhering to the principles of constitutionalism and the protection of individual rights, democracies provide an environment in which citizens can thrive and participate actively in the political process.

(b) Rawls’ idea of the “liberal self is too individualistic. Explain, in this context, the communitarian critique of Rawls’ theory of justice.     (15 Marks)
Ans: 
Introduction: 
John Rawls' theory of justice, based on the "liberal self," is criticized by communitarians for being too individualistic. The communitarian perspective emphasizes the importance of community and shared values.

Rawls' "Liberal Self":

• Rawls' theory revolves around the idea of the "veil of ignorance" where individuals make decisions about justice without knowledge of their own characteristics. This leads to the creation of principles of justice that are detached from personal identities and specific communities.

Communitarian Critique:

• Communitarians argue that Rawls' theory neglects the importance of culture, tradition, and community in shaping an individual's values and sense of justice. They contend that it promotes a detached, impersonal view of justice, which doesn't account for the moral and cultural context in which individuals live.

• Michael Sandel, a prominent communitarian critic, points out that Rawls' theory lacks the necessary moral foundation, as it doesn't adequately consider the role of shared values and traditions in shaping individuals' moral compass.

Example:

• In a communitarian perspective, a multicultural society with diverse cultural norms may find Rawls' theory insufficient. The liberal self may not resonate with individuals who draw their sense of justice from their cultural or religious communities, potentially leading to a disconnect between the theory and the lived experiences of people.

Conclusion: 
The communitarian critique of Rawls' theory highlights the tension between the individualistic nature of the "liberal self" and the importance of community and shared values in shaping justice. While Rawls' theory offers a valuable framework, it may need to be supplemented with communitarian insights to account for the full spectrum of human experiences.

(c) ‘Credo of Relevance’ in post-behaviouralism advocates the importance of action science. Analyze.     (15 Marks)
Ans: 

Introduction: 
In the context of political science, the "Credo of Relevance" emerged during the post-behavioralism era, advocating for the importance of action science. This shift represents a significant change in the approach to political research.

The "Credo of Relevance":

• Post-behavioralism emerged as a reaction to the perceived limitations of behavioralism, which focused on empirical, value-neutral research. The "Credo of Relevance" stressed the need for political science to address real-world problems and engage with social and political issues directly.

• Action science, as advocated by the "Credo of Relevance," emphasizes that political research should not only describe and analyze political phenomena but also provide actionable solutions to societal challenges. It encourages political scientists to engage with policymakers and the public to effect positive change.

Analysis:

• Action science seeks to bridge the gap between academia and practical politics. By actively engaging with policy issues, researchers can contribute to the development of effective policies and the resolution of social problems. For example, research on poverty can lead to policy recommendations that address this issue directly, benefiting society.

• Critics argue that action science may compromise the objectivity of research, as the desire for relevance can influence findings and recommendations. Striking a balance between academic rigor and practical relevance is a challenge.

Example:

• The "Credo of Relevance" can be seen in environmental politics, where researchers actively engage with policymakers to address issues like climate change. Their findings not only describe the environmental crisis but also suggest policy actions to mitigate its impact, emphasizing the practical relevance of their work.

Conclusion: 
The "Credo of Relevance" in post-behavioralism promotes action science in political research, emphasizing the importance of addressing real-world issues and providing actionable solutions. While it offers an avenue for meaningful engagement with societal problems, it also raises questions about the objectivity of research and the balance between academic rigor and practical applicability.

Q3:
(a) Fascism displays an ambivalent stance towards parliamentary democracy. Explain.     (20 Marks)
Ans: 
Introduction: Fascism, as a political ideology, displays an ambivalent stance towards parliamentary democracy, often using democratic processes to gain power but subsequently undermining them. This ambivalence is rooted in the nature of fascist ideologies and historical examples.

Utilization of Democracy:

• Fascist leaders like Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler initially utilized parliamentary democracy to gain political footholds. They ran for elections and used democratic institutions to achieve power. For example, Mussolini's National Fascist Party participated in the 1921 Italian elections.

• Fascist movements used democratic processes strategically, taking advantage of political freedoms to spread their message, gain popular support, and secure parliamentary seats.

Undermining Democracy:

• Once in power, fascists often worked to dismantle parliamentary democracy. They centralized authority, suppressed opposition, and curtailed civil liberties. For instance, Hitler's Enabling Act of 1933 gave him dictatorial powers, effectively ending the democratic process in Germany.

• The goal of fascism is typically the establishment of an authoritarian, one-party state, which is fundamentally at odds with the principles of pluralism and democratic representation.

Ambiguity in Fascist Ideology:

• Fascism is characterized by its adaptability and lack of a fixed ideological framework. This allows fascist leaders to employ democratic means when convenient and discard them when they pose a threat to their power.

• The ambivalence is also evident in fascist rhetoric, where leaders often speak against parliamentary democracy, portraying it as weak and corrupt, while exploiting its institutions to gain legitimacy.

Conclusion: The ambivalence of fascism towards parliamentary democracy reflects its opportunistic and anti-pluralistic nature. Fascist movements may use democratic processes to gain power but ultimately seek to replace them with authoritarian rule. Understanding this ambivalence is crucial for safeguarding democratic institutions and principles.

(b) Affirmative Action Policies draw as much strong criticism as strong support. Analyze this statement in the context of equality.     (15 Marks)
Ans: 
Introduction: 
Affirmative action policies, designed to address historical and systemic inequalities, draw both strong criticism and support. The debate centers on their impact on equality and fairness.

Strong Criticism:

• Critics argue that affirmative action policies, which often involve preferential treatment for underrepresented groups, can be discriminatory in themselves. They contend that such policies may reverse discrimination by disadvantaging individuals from historically privileged backgrounds.

• Critics also claim that affirmative action policies can lead to tokenism, where individuals from underrepresented groups are seen as tokens rather than as qualified candidates. This undermines the principle of meritocracy.

Strong Support:

• Proponents of affirmative action policies argue that they are necessary to rectify historical injustices and systemic inequalities. These policies aim to level the playing field and promote diversity, which can enhance the quality of decision-making and opportunities in education and the workplace.

• Supporters point to empirical evidence showing that affirmative action has led to increased access for marginalized groups in education and employment, promoting social mobility and reducing disparities.

Example:

• In the United States, affirmative action policies have been a subject of intense debate. While they face criticism for potentially discriminating against certain individuals, they have also been credited with increasing the representation of minorities in higher education and professional fields, addressing historical disparities.

Conclusion: 
The controversy surrounding affirmative action policies in the context of equality reflects the complexities of addressing historical injustices. While they aim to promote equality and diversity, they can be divisive, and the debate underscores the challenge of striking a balance between rectifying past injustices and ensuring fairness in the present.

(c) Eurocentrism is both the target and the motive force of the post-colonial political theory. Discuss.     (15 Marks)
Ans: 
Introduction: 
Post-colonial political theory critiques Eurocentrism as both its target and the motive force. Eurocentrism refers to the dominance of European thought, values, and culture, which had a profound impact on the global political landscape through colonialism.

Target of Critique:

• Post-colonial political theory criticizes Eurocentrism for its role in justifying and perpetuating colonialism. European powers used their perceived cultural and moral superiority to justify the subjugation and exploitation of colonized regions.

• Scholars like Frantz Fanon and Edward Said have critiqued Eurocentrism for constructing a narrative of "the Other," portraying colonized peoples as inferior and in need of European guidance.

Motive Force for Post-Colonial Theory:

• Post-colonial political theory is motivated by the need to challenge and deconstruct Eurocentrism. It seeks to reclaim the voices, cultures, and histories of formerly colonized peoples and challenge the dominant Eurocentric narratives.

• This theory aims to empower marginalized voices, provide alternative perspectives, and highlight the enduring impact of colonialism on global power dynamics and contemporary issues.

Example:

• The works of post-colonial scholars like Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o from Kenya and Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak from India challenge Eurocentrism by exploring how colonialism disrupted indigenous cultures and languages and how these disruptions continue to shape post-colonial societies.

Conclusion: 
Eurocentrism remains a central focus of post-colonial political theory, both as a target for critique and as the motive force behind the theory. It seeks to challenge the dominance of European perspectives, empower marginalized voices, and address the lasting impact of colonialism on contemporary global politics.

Q4:
(a) Buddhist thought on Dhamma facilitates the emancipation of political action. Explain.     (20 Marks)
Ans: 
Introduction: 
Buddhist thought on Dhamma, which refers to the teachings and principles expounded by Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha), holds profound implications for the emancipation of political action. Dhamma encompasses the ethical and moral framework of Buddhism and has been a guiding force in shaping political behavior.

Emphasis on Non-Violence and Compassion:

• Buddhism places a strong emphasis on non-violence (Ahimsa) and compassion, which are central to Dhamma. These principles advocate for the resolution of conflicts through peaceful means and the reduction of suffering, both at an individual and societal level.

• Examples like the reign of Emperor Ashoka in ancient India demonstrate how Buddhist thought influenced political leaders to adopt a more humane approach to governance. Ashoka's edicts reflect his commitment to Dhamma and the welfare of his subjects.

Equality and Social Justice:

• Dhamma also advocates for equality and social justice. The idea that all individuals have the potential for enlightenment (Bodhi) emphasizes the equal worth of all human beings. This notion can be applied to political action by promoting policies that ensure equal opportunities and rights for all.

• In contemporary politics, the adoption of inclusive policies that address the needs of marginalized and disadvantaged groups can be seen as an application of Buddhist principles. For instance, the promotion of social welfare programs can be viewed as a manifestation of compassion and concern for the well-being of all citizens.

Emancipation from Materialism:

• Buddhist thought encourages individuals to seek emancipation from material desires and attachments. In the political realm, this can translate into a call for leaders and citizens to prioritize ethical governance over personal gain.

• In some Buddhist-majority countries like Bhutan, the concept of Gross National Happiness (GNH) has been used as a political and policy framework to emphasize the well-being and contentment of the population over purely economic measures.

Conclusion: 
Buddhist thought on Dhamma serves as a moral compass for political action by promoting non-violence, compassion, equality, and a focus on well-being over materialism. It can guide political leaders and societies towards more ethical and compassionate governance, contributing to the emancipation of political action from self-serving interests.

(b) “The legal subordination of one sex to another is wrong in itself, and now one of the chief hindrances to human development.” (J. S. Mill). Comment.     (15 Marks)
Ans: 
Introduction: 
J.S. Mill, a prominent philosopher and women's rights advocate, asserted that the legal subordination of one sex to another is inherently wrong and a major hindrance to human development. This statement reflects the need for gender equality and the removal of legal barriers that impede it.

Mill's Arguments:

• Inherent Wrongness: Mill argues that subordinating one sex to another is fundamentally unjust because it denies individuals their basic rights and freedoms based solely on their gender. This contravenes the principles of liberty and equality central to liberal philosophy.

• Hindrance to Human Development: Mill asserts that gender-based legal subordination inhibits the development of both men and women. It limits women's opportunities for education, career advancement, and personal fulfillment, while also constraining men by enforcing traditional gender roles.

• Economic Implications: Legal subordination of one sex can have economic consequences. In societies where women are legally denied certain professions or economic activities, overall productivity is stifled, and valuable contributions are wasted.

Contemporary Examples:

• In many countries, laws that previously limited women's access to education, employment, and political participation have been reformed, reflecting a move towards gender equality and acknowledging the wrongness of legal subordination.
• Workplace gender discrimination and the gender pay gap continue to be issues in many societies, highlighting the ongoing struggle against the hindrances Mill pointed out.

Conclusion: 
J.S. Mill's assertion about the inherent wrongness of legal subordination of one sex to another underscores the importance of gender equality in modern society. It is crucial to recognize and rectify such legal subordination to ensure the full and equal development of all individuals, regardless of their gender.

(c) Sri Aurobindo’s idea of Swaraj has deep significance in the Indian social, political and cultural history. Analyze.     (15 Marks)
Ans: 
Introduction: 
Sri Aurobindo, a philosopher, yogi, and freedom fighter, introduced the concept of Swaraj, which transcends the political realm to encompass a holistic vision of self-governance, self-realization, and cultural renewal.

Components of Sri Aurobindo's Swaraj:

• Spiritual Self-Realization: Aurobindo believed that true Swaraj begins with individual self-realization and spiritual awakening. This inner transformation is seen as the foundation for external political freedom.

• Integral Development: Swaraj, according to Aurobindo, includes the development of all aspects of human existence, not just the political. It encompasses cultural, educational, economic, and social dimensions.

• Cultural Renewal: Aurobindo emphasized the importance of preserving and revitalizing indigenous cultures, languages, and traditions as a vital aspect of Swaraj, which can be seen in the promotion of regional languages and cultural diversity in India.

Significance in Indian History:

• Sri Aurobindo's ideas greatly influenced the Indian independence movement and continue to resonate in India's cultural and political landscape. His call for self-realization and spiritual growth inspired many leaders, including Mahatma Gandhi.

• Swaraj, as envisioned by Aurobindo, reflects a broader understanding of self-governance and cultural identity, which has influenced India's post-independence policies, such as the promotion of decentralized governance and the preservation of cultural heritage.

Contemporary Relevance:

• Aurobindo's ideas are relevant in the modern context as India continues to grapple with issues related to cultural identity, inclusive development, and the need for a deeper sense of self-realization.

Conclusion: 
Sri Aurobindo's concept of Swaraj is a multifaceted vision that goes beyond mere political freedom. It emphasizes the integral development of individuals and their society, the preservation of cultural heritage, and the pursuit of spiritual growth. It remains a significant and enduring concept in India's social, political, and cultural history.