UPSC Mains Answer PYQ 2023: PSIR Paper 2 (Section- A) | PSIR Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Section - A

Q1: Answer the following questions in about 150 words each: (10x5=5)
(a) What are the crucial functions of empirical political theory in Comparative Politics ?     (10 Marks)
Ans: 
Introduction: 
Empirical political theory in Comparative Politics serves several crucial functions, providing a deeper understanding of political phenomena through systematic observation and analysis.

1. Description and Explanation:

• Empirical political theory helps describe and explain political phenomena in different countries.
• By collecting and analyzing data, researchers can identify patterns, correlations, and causal relationships.

2. Comparative Analysis:

• It allows for the systematic comparison of political systems, institutions, and behaviors across different states.
• Comparative analysis helps in identifying similarities and differences, contributing to the development of general theories or concepts.

Example:

• Comparative analysis can examine the impact of different electoral systems on political representation by comparing proportional representation in Germany to first-past-the-post in the UK.

3. Policy Evaluation:

• Empirical research is instrumental in assessing the effectiveness of policies and their outcomes.
• Policymakers can use empirical data to make informed decisions, leading to more efficient governance.

Example:

• Evaluating the impact of healthcare policies on public health outcomes by comparing healthcare systems in countries like the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom.

4. Testing Political Theories:

• Empirical political theory can test and refine existing political theories or hypotheses.
• Researchers can examine whether theories hold true across diverse political contexts.

Example:

• Testing the democratic peace theory by comparing the behavior of democracies in international relations and assessing whether they are less likely to engage in conflicts with one another.

Conclusion: 
Empirical political theory in Comparative Politics is essential for providing systematic insights into political phenomena, facilitating cross-national comparisons, guiding policymaking, and enhancing the validity of political theories.

(b) What are the difficulties faced by a political theorist in comparing the States ?     (10 Marks)
Ans: 
Introduction: 
Political theorists often encounter several challenges when comparing states and their political systems. These difficulties can hinder the development of meaningful theories and conclusions.

1. Contextual Variations:

• States operate in distinct historical, cultural, and socio-economic contexts, making direct comparisons challenging.
• These variations can lead to oversimplification or the neglect of crucial nuances in each state's political dynamics.

2. Data Limitations:

• Access to reliable and comparable data across states can be limited.
• Inconsistent data quality and availability hinder the accuracy of cross-country comparisons.

3. Translation and Interpretation Issues:

• When comparing political texts or documents, translating and interpreting nuances in language and context can be challenging.
• This may lead to misinterpretations and inaccuracies in analysis.

4. Ethical and Cultural Sensitivities:

• Comparative research must navigate ethical and cultural sensitivities when analyzing political practices.
• Applying Western-centric theories to non-Western contexts may not account for cultural differences or indigenous political traditions.

5. Selecting Relevant Variables:

• Identifying the most pertinent variables for comparison is crucial, but it can be subjective.
• Researchers must make informed choices, which can affect the validity of their analyses.

Conclusion: 
Political theorists must remain mindful of these challenges when comparing states, emphasizing the need for methodological rigor and cultural sensitivity in their research to ensure accurate and meaningful insights.

(c) How does democratic politics construct citizenship ?    (10 Marks)
Ans: 
Introduction: 
Democratic politics plays a pivotal role in constructing citizenship, as it defines the rights, responsibilities, and identity of individuals within a state.

1. Legal Framework:

• In a democracy, citizenship is often defined by laws and regulations that determine who qualifies as a citizen and what rights they possess.
• Legal frameworks provide the foundation for citizens' participation in the political process.

2. Political Participation:

• In a democratic system, citizens have the right to participate in elections, referendums, and other political activities.
• This active involvement in the political process is central to citizenship in a democracy.

Example:

• Citizens exercise their right to vote in national elections, such as the U.S. presidential election, to have a say in the country's governance.

3. Protection of Rights:

• Democratic politics ensures the protection of fundamental rights and freedoms for citizens, such as freedom of speech, assembly, and religion.
• These rights are integral to the concept of citizenship in a democracy.

Example:

• The First Amendment in the United States guarantees citizens the right to freedom of speech, a cornerstone of their citizenship.

4. Inclusivity and Equality:

• Democratic principles promote inclusivity and equality, ensuring that citizenship is not restricted based on factors like race, gender, or religion.
• All citizens have equal rights and responsibilities.

Example:

• The Civil Rights Act of 1964 in the United States played a significant role in ending racial discrimination, affirming equal citizenship for all.

Conclusion: 
Democratic politics constructs citizenship by providing a legal framework, fostering political participation, protecting rights, and promoting inclusivity and equality. In democratic systems, citizenship is not merely a legal status; it is an active, participatory role in shaping the state's governance and policies.

(d) What is the structure and functions of International Court of Justice ?    (10 Marks)
Ans: 
Introduction: 
The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations, tasked with settling legal disputes between states and providing advisory opinions on legal questions referred by the UN General Assembly, Security Council, or specialized agencies.

Structure:

• The ICJ consists of 15 judges who are elected by the UN General Assembly and the Security Council.
• Judges serve nine-year terms and can be reelected.
• The Court's composition ensures representation from various regions of the world.

Functions:

• Adjudication of Disputes: The primary function of the ICJ is to adjudicate legal disputes between states. When two or more states cannot resolve a dispute through negotiation or diplomacy, they can submit the matter to the ICJ for a binding judgment.

• Advisory Opinions: The ICJ can provide advisory opinions on legal questions referred by UN organs, specialized agencies, or authorized entities. These opinions are non-binding but carry significant legal weight.
  Example:
  The ICJ provided an advisory opinion on the legality of the separation of Kosovo from Serbia, contributing to the international understanding of self-determination and secession.

• Interpretation of Treaties: The Court interprets and applies international treaties and agreements when requested by states. This function clarifies the legal obligations of the parties involved.
  Example:
  The ICJ has interpreted treaties in cases related to maritime boundaries, trade disputes, and human rights agreements.

• Enforcement of Judgments: While the ICJ's judgments are binding, it lacks its own enforcement mechanisms. It relies on states' willingness to comply with its decisions, and enforcement may involve diplomatic and political pressures.

• Promotion of International Law: The ICJ contributes to the development and promotion of international law by creating precedents and setting legal standards for state behavior

Conclusion: 
The ICJ's structure and functions make it a crucial institution for maintaining international peace and security, resolving state disputes, and upholding the rule of international law.

(e) Discuss the structure and functions of UN Security Council.    (10 Marks)
Ans: 
Introduction: 
The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is a key organ of the United Nations responsible for maintaining international peace and security. It has a distinct structure and various functions.

Structure:

• The UNSC comprises 15 members, consisting of five permanent members (P5) with veto power—China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States—and ten non-permanent members serving two-year terms.
• The presidency of the UNSC rotates among its members on a monthly basis.

Functions:

• Peace and Security: The primary function of the UNSC is to maintain international peace and security. It can authorize military actions, sanctions, and peacekeeping missions to address conflicts and threats to peace.
  Example:
  The UNSC authorized the use of force in the Gulf War to liberate Kuwait from Iraqi occupation in 1990-1991.
• Conflict Resolution: The UNSC addresses and resolves conflicts through diplomatic means, often using negotiations, mediation, and peace agreements.
  Example:
  The UNSC played a pivotal role in brokering the peace agreement that ended the civil war in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1995.
• Sanctions: The UNSC can impose sanctions, such as economic or arms embargoes, to pressure states or entities that threaten international peace and security.
  Example:
  Sanctions were imposed on North Korea to deter its nuclear weapons program.
• Peacekeeping: The UNSC authorizes and oversees peacekeeping operations to stabilize conflict-affected regions and support post-conflict reconstruction.
  Example:
  The UNSC authorized the deployment of peacekeepers to Darfur to protect civilians and support peace efforts.
• Admission of New Members: The UNSC considers and approves the admission of new UN member states.
  Example:
  The UNSC approved South Sudan's admission as a UN member state following its secession from Sudan in 2011.

Conclusion: 
The UNSC's structure and functions empower it to address conflicts, promote peace, and safeguard international security, while the P5's veto power adds a complex dynamic to its decision-making process, requiring consensus among the major powers for many significant actions.

Q2: 
(a) Discuss the relevance of the normative ethos of the Non-Aligned Movement in magnifying India’s soft power in pursuit of her national interest.     (20 Marks)
Ans: 
Introduction: 
The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) is a forum of states advocating for global peace, cooperation, and development, independent of major power blocs. India's association with NAM has played a significant role in enhancing its soft power and pursuing national interests.

1. Normative Ethos of NAM:

• NAM promotes principles such as peace, anti-colonialism, anti-imperialism, and respect for sovereignty.
• These normative principles align with India's historical struggles against colonialism and its commitment to international peace and cooperation.

2. Soft Power Projection:

• India's association with NAM enhances its soft power, the ability to influence others through attraction and persuasion.
• NAM membership conveys India as a champion of peace, independence, and multilateralism, thus improving its global image.

Example:

• India's leadership in NAM facilitated its role in peacekeeping missions and mediation efforts, such as in the Sri Lankan civil conflict.

3. Diplomatic Leverage:

• India has used its NAM affiliation to foster diplomatic ties and partnerships, often outside traditional alliances.
• This provides India with multiple avenues to advance its national interests, such as trade, energy security, and counter-terrorism cooperation.

Example:

• India's NAM connections have been instrumental in cultivating relationships with countries in Africa, Latin America, and Southeast Asia, expanding its economic and strategic footprint.

4. Promoting Multilateralism:

• NAM's emphasis on multilateralism and global governance aligns with India's advocacy for a reformed UN Security Council and increased representation.
• India leverages its NAM connections to advance these reforms, which serve its long-term interests.

Conclusion: 
India's participation in the Non-Aligned Movement reflects its commitment to normative principles of peace, anti-colonialism, and multilateralism, enhancing its soft power and diplomatic leverage on the global stage. This, in turn, facilitates the pursuit of its national interests.

(b) In what ways does the functionalist approach in International relations help in maintaining peace and order in global politics ?     (15 Marks)
Ans: 
Introduction: 
Functionalism is an approach in international relations that emphasizes cooperation in addressing specific issues as a means to promote peace and order. It plays a significant role in maintaining global stability.

1. Issue-Centric Cooperation:

• Functionalism encourages states to address common functional issues, such as trade, environment, health, and security, through international cooperation.
• Focusing on specific problems fosters trust and collaboration, reducing the likelihood of conflicts.

Example:

• The World Trade Organization (WTO) promotes trade liberalization, economic cooperation, and dispute resolution, reducing trade-related tensions.

2. Interdependence and Peace:

• Functionalism highlights the interdependence of states in the modern world.
• States have an incentive to work together to tackle transnational challenges like terrorism, climate change, or pandemics to maintain peace and stability.

Example:

• International efforts to combat climate change, as seen in the Paris Agreement, are rooted in functionalist principles, as addressing environmental issues can prevent future conflicts.

3. Integration and Regional Stability:

• Functionalist regional organizations, such as the European Union (EU), have successfully promoted regional integration, economic cooperation, and conflict prevention.

Example:

• The EU has played a vital role in fostering peace and stability in Europe, particularly in the post-World War II era.

4. Reducing Security Dilemma:

• Functionalism's emphasis on issue-specific cooperation can reduce the security dilemma, where states' military build-ups create distrust and conflict.
• By addressing security-related issues collaboratively, states can mitigate security concerns and build trust.

Example:

• The P5+1 agreement with Iran on its nuclear program is an example of functionalist cooperation in the realm of security.

Conclusion: 
Functionalism in international relations promotes cooperation, interdependence, and issue-specific problem-solving, contributing to the maintenance of peace and order in global politics by reducing the likelihood of conflicts and promoting diplomatic solutions.

(c) How does the regime change and political crisis in Myanmar threaten regional security and peace ?     (15 Marks)
Ans: 
Introduction: The regime change and political crisis in Myanmar pose a significant threat to regional security and peace in Southeast Asia.

1. Instability and Refugees:

• The political crisis has led to internal instability and violence, displacing thousands of Myanmar's citizens.
• This has created a refugee crisis, straining neighboring countries and increasing the potential for cross-border conflicts.

Example:

• Thousands of Rohingya refugees have fled to Bangladesh, affecting the region's stability.

2. Impact on Regional Organizations:

• Myanmar's crisis has strained regional organizations like the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN).
• Disagreements on how to address the situation hinder regional cooperation and conflict resolution.

Example:

• ASEAN's inability to reach a consensus on Myanmar's crisis has limited its effectiveness in addressing the issue.

3. Potential for Proxy Conflicts:

• The involvement of external powers and their support for different sides in the crisis increases the risk of proxy conflicts.
• This could further destabilize the region and heighten tensions among states.

Example:

• China's support for Myanmar's military junta and Western sanctions against it reflect the involvement of external actors in the crisis.

4. Impact on Trade and Investment:

• The crisis can disrupt regional trade and investment, affecting economic stability in neighboring countries.
• Economic uncertainties can lead to political tensions and potential conflicts.

Example:

• Thailand and China, both major trading partners with Myanmar, have expressed concerns about the impact on their economic interests.

Conclusion: 
The political crisis and regime change in Myanmar threaten regional security and peace by causing instability, straining regional organizations, increasing the potential for proxy conflicts, and disrupting economic relations in Southeast Asia. Addressing this crisis is crucial for maintaining regional stability and peace.

Q3:
(a) “During the Cold War, the Non-Aligned Movement tried to become a ‘Third force’ in World Politics, but failed because it was too large and unwieldy.” Discuss.     (20 Marks)
Ans:
Introduction: The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) emerged during the Cold War as a coalition of states that sought to remain unaligned with the two superpower blocs, the United States and the Soviet Union. While NAM aimed to become a 'Third Force' in world politics, it faced significant challenges that hindered its success.

1. The Size and Diversity of NAM:

• NAM was initially a large and diverse group of countries, including a wide spectrum of political ideologies, cultures, and interests.
• This diversity made it challenging to form a cohesive and unified bloc with a shared agenda.

Example:

• NAM included socialist countries like Cuba, capitalist countries like India, and monarchies like Saudi Arabia, each with different worldviews and priorities.

2. Lack of a Unified Agenda:

• NAM struggled to develop a unified agenda and common strategies.
• The member states had varying foreign policy goals, and the absence of a common stance on major international issues weakened NAM's influence.

Example:

• Disagreements within NAM regarding the Suez Crisis in 1956 and the Vietnam War illustrated its inability to coordinate its responses to significant global events.

3. Limited Coordinating Mechanisms:

• NAM lacked effective coordinating mechanisms and institutions, which hindered its ability to respond collectively to global challenges.
• The absence of a central authority or decision-making body reduced NAM's impact.

Example:

• The lack of a central institution like the United Nations Security Council limited NAM's capacity to enforce its collective decisions.

4. Changing Global Dynamics:

• The fluid nature of Cold War geopolitics made it difficult for NAM to position itself as a 'Third Force.'
• As superpower relations evolved, some NAM members, such as India, engaged with one or both superpowers, diluting NAM's independence.

Conclusion: The Non-Aligned Movement's ambition to become a 'Third Force' in world politics during the Cold War was hampered by its size, diversity, lack of a unified agenda, limited coordinating mechanisms, and evolving global dynamics. While it had moments of influence, NAM ultimately fell short of achieving its goal.

(b) Account for the rise of European Union as a highly influential regional organisation.     (15 Marks)
Ans: 
Introduction: 
The European Union (EU) has emerged as a highly influential regional organization due to several key factors that have facilitated its growth and impact on the global stage.

1. Economic Integration:

• The EU began as an economic community, aiming to promote economic cooperation and prevent future conflicts.
• The establishment of the European Coal and Steel Community in 1951 marked the initial step toward economic integration.

Example:

• The single market and the introduction of the euro as a common currency have enhanced economic cooperation among member states, driving economic growth and stability.

2. Expansion of Membership:

• The EU gradually expanded its membership by welcoming new states, notably in Eastern Europe after the Cold War.
• This enlargement has increased the EU's political and economic clout, as well as its relevance in global politics.

Example:

• The accession of Eastern European countries like Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic contributed to the EU's larger and more diverse membership.

3. Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP):

• The development of a Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) allowed the EU to speak with a unified voice on international matters.
• This has enabled the EU to influence global issues such as climate change, peacekeeping, and trade negotiations.

Example:

• The EU's role in the Iran nuclear deal negotiations showcased its ability to act as a diplomatic player on the world stage.

4. Soft Power and Normative Influence:

• The EU's promotion of democracy, human rights, and the rule of law has enhanced its soft power.
• Neighboring countries have sought to align with EU norms and standards, increasing the EU's influence in its neighborhood.

Example:

• The Eastern Partnership, an EU initiative, has encouraged Eastern European countries to adopt democratic and governance reforms.

Conclusion: 
The European Union's journey from an economic community to a highly influential regional organization is marked by its economic integration, expansion of membership, development of a Common Foreign and Security Policy, and the soft power it wields through the promotion of norms and values. The EU's ability to act as a unified actor on the global stage has solidified its position as a significant player in international politics.

(c) Narrate the various ways in which rapid environmental degradation is posing a serious threat to human security. Illustrate your answer with suitable examples.     (15 Marks)
Introduction: 
Rapid environmental degradation poses a serious threat to human security on multiple fronts, impacting various aspects of human life and well-being.

1. Climate Change and Extreme Weather Events:

• Climate change leads to more frequent and severe extreme weather events, such as hurricanes, floods, and droughts.
• These events displace populations, destroy infrastructure, and disrupt livelihoods, undermining human security.

Example:

• Hurricane Katrina in 2005 led to mass displacement, loss of lives, and severe damage to New Orleans, highlighting the security implications of climate-related disasters.

2. Resource Scarcity and Conflict:

• Depletion of natural resources, including water and arable land, can lead to conflicts over these essential resources.
• Resource-driven conflicts exacerbate human insecurity, displacement, and food shortages.

Example:

• The Darfur conflict in Sudan had resource-related elements, with competition for water and arable land contributing to the violence and displacement.

3. Biodiversity Loss and Food Security:

• The loss of biodiversity and habitat degradation can harm food security by reducing the availability of diverse and nutritious food sources.
• This impacts human health and well-being, particularly in vulnerable communities.

Example:

• The decline of pollinators like bees and butterflies has the potential to disrupt crop production, affecting food security.

4. Health Risks and Disease Spread:

• Environmental degradation can lead to the spread of diseases, including waterborne illnesses and vector-borne diseases.
• The resulting health crises can overwhelm healthcare systems and create human insecurity.

Example:

• The Zika virus outbreak in Latin America in 2015-2016, linked to environmental factors, raised concerns about public health and security.

Conclusion: 
Rapid environmental degradation poses a multifaceted threat to human security, encompassing climate-related disasters, resource-driven conflicts, food insecurity, and public health risks. Addressing these challenges is crucial for safeguarding human well-being and global stability.

Q4:
(a) Critically examine the impact of Globalisation on the developing countries of the world.     (20 Marks)
Ans: 
Introduction: 
Globalization, characterized by increased economic, political, and cultural interconnectedness, has had a profound impact on developing countries. While globalization offers opportunities, it also presents challenges and risks.

Positive Impacts:
1. Economic Growth:

• Globalization has led to increased trade, investment, and access to global markets, fostering economic growth in many developing nations.

Example:

• China's integration into the global economy lifted hundreds of millions out of poverty, making it one of the world's largest economies.

2. Technological Advancement:

• Developing countries benefit from access to technology, knowledge, and innovation, enhancing productivity and competitiveness.

Example:

• India's IT and software services sector has flourished through globalization, becoming a global leader in software development and services.

3. Cultural Exchange:

• Globalization facilitates the exchange of cultures, ideas, and information, promoting cultural diversity and understanding.

Example:

• The global popularity of K-Pop from South Korea is an illustration of cultural exchange and soft power influence.

Negative Impacts:
1. Income Inequality:

• Globalization has often exacerbated income inequality within developing countries, with benefits concentrating among the wealthy or urban areas.

Example:

• In many Latin American countries, globalization contributed to inequality and social unrest.

2. Economic Vulnerability:

• Developing countries can become overly dependent on global markets, making their economies susceptible to external shocks, like financial crises or commodity price fluctuations.

Example:

• The 1997 Asian financial crisis demonstrated how vulnerable economies in the region were to external shocks.

3. Loss of Cultural Identity:

• Rapid cultural globalization can lead to the erosion of traditional cultural values and identities in favor of Westernization.

Example:

• The spread of American fast-food chains and global entertainment can diminish local culinary traditions and cultural practices.

Conclusion: 
Globalization in developing countries is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon, offering both opportunities and challenges. It is essential for these nations to leverage globalization's benefits while addressing its negative consequences through sound policies and strategies.

(b) What do you mean by offensive and defensive realism ?     (15 Marks)
Ans: 
Introduction:
 Offensive and defensive realism are two prominent theories in the field of international relations that offer different perspectives on state behavior and the pursuit of national security.

Offensive Realism:
1. Focus on Power and Security Maximization:

• Offensive realists, such as John Mearsheimer, argue that states inherently seek to maximize their power and security in an anarchic international system.

2. Aggressive Behavior:

• States, according to offensive realists, are driven by a desire for relative gains, often adopting aggressive strategies, including expansion, to secure their position.

3. Zero-Sum Game:

• Offensive realism views international politics as a zero-sum game, where one state's gain comes at the expense of another.

Defensive Realism:
1. Security and Survival:

• Defensive realists, like Kenneth Waltz, contend that states primarily aim to ensure their security and survival rather than pursuing constant power maximization.

2. Balancing Behavior:

• States engage in balancing behavior to prevent aggression by other states, often forming alliances and strengthening their defenses.

3. Power as a Means to Security:

• Defensive realism acknowledges the importance of power, but it is seen as a means to ensure security rather than an end in itself.

Comparison:

• Offensive realism emphasizes the inherent aggressiveness of states and their pursuit of relative gains, while defensive realism focuses on states' efforts to maintain their security and prevent aggression through balancing strategies.

Conclusion: 
Offensive and defensive realism offer contrasting viewpoints on state behavior and international relations, with offensive realism highlighting the competitive and often aggressive nature of states and defensive realism emphasizing the importance of security and survival in a world characterized by anarchy.

(c) Discuss the various constraints on American hegemony today. Which of these are likely to become more prominent in the future ?    (15 Marks)
Ans: 
Introduction: 
The United States has been a global hegemon for decades, but various constraints have emerged, shaping the trajectory of American hegemony.

Current Constraints:
1. Rising Multipolarity:

• The emergence of new global powers, such as China, challenges American unipolarity and curtails its influence.

2. Economic Interdependence:

• The global economy's interconnectedness limits the extent to which the U.S. can exert economic leverage without causing harm to its own interests.

3. Erosion of Soft Power:

• U.S. soft power has been undermined by controversial policies, eroding its ability to shape global norms and values.

Future Trends:
1. Geopolitical Shifts:

• Geopolitical power shifts will continue, with the rise of China and the potential resurgence of Russia altering the global landscape.

2. Multipolar Order:

• A multipolar world order is increasingly likely, with multiple powers sharing influence, rather than U.S. unipolarity.

3. Challenges to Global Governance:

• The U.S. will face constraints in shaping global governance, as other powers assert themselves and demand a greater say in international institutions.

Conclusion: 
The constraints on American hegemony are likely to intensify in the future, with the rise of new powers, shifts in global dynamics, and challenges to U.S. leadership in international institutions. While the U.S. will remain a significant player in world politics, it will face greater constraints on its ability to unilaterally shape global affairs.