UPSC Mains Answer PYQ 2024: Sociology Paper 2 (Section- A) | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Q1: Answer the following questions in about 150 words each:    (10 x 5 = 50 Marks)

(a) What, according to you, are the factors responsible for the continuance of caste system in India? Explain.    (10 Marks)
Ans:
Factors Responsible for the Continuance of the Caste System in India
The caste system in India persists due to a complex interplay of historical, religious, social, and political factors. Despite modernization and reform efforts, this deeply entrenched social hierarchy continues to shape societal structures.

Key factors contributing to its continuance include:
1. Religious Legitimization:

• Ancient Hindu texts like the Manusmriti provide a religious basis for caste norms, perpetuating ideas of karma and dharma.
• Louis Dumont emphasized that notions of purity and pollution sustain caste hierarchies by ascribing ritualistic superiority to certain groups.

2. Socialization and Endogamy:

• G.S. Ghurye highlighted how caste identities are ingrained from childhood through family and community practices.
• Endogamous marriage practices reinforce caste boundaries, maintaining the system across generations.

3. Economic Ties:

• André Béteille noted that caste networks facilitate employment and business opportunities, creating economic interdependence within caste groups.
• Traditional occupations associated with castes also sustain these divisions, even in modern contexts.

4. Political Exploitation:

• Caste is a significant factor in Indian politics, with political parties using it to mobilize voter bases and reinforce caste consciousness.
• Electoral strategies often exploit caste divisions for short-term gains, entrenching its role in governance.

5. Inadequate Policy Implementation:

• While anti-discrimination laws and reservation policies aim to address caste inequalities, they can sometimes solidify caste identities by institutionalizing them for administrative purposes.
• Poor implementation and lack of awareness about these laws exacerbate the problem.

6. Adaptation to Modernization:

• Yogendra Singh observed that rather than being eliminated, caste often adapts to new contexts like urbanization, education, and globalization.
• Modern phenomena, such as caste-based associations and digital platforms, have also revitalized caste identities in new forms.

Conclusion:The persistence of the caste system arises from its deeply rooted and multifaceted nature, spanning religion, politics, economics, and social norms. Comprehensive efforts involving education, awareness, legal reforms, and socio-economic empowerment are essential to challenge and gradually dismantle this enduring system.

(b) Discuss the changes taking place in the industrial class structure in India.    (10 Marks)
Ans:India’s industrial class structure has undergone significant changes due to liberalization, globalization, and technological advancements. Traditional organized labor is declining, making way for a more fragmented and informal workforce.
Key changes include:

1. Informalization of Labor:A substantial portion of industrial workers are now employed on casual or contractual terms, lacking job security and benefits. Sociologist Jan Breman refers to this phenomenon as the rise of the “footloose labor” class, highlighting their precarious employment conditions.
2. Diminished Power of Trade Unions:The decline of unionized labor has weakened workers' collective bargaining power, resulting in precarious working conditions and limited ability to negotiate for better wages or benefits.
3. Growth of a New Middle Class:Economic reforms have expanded the urban middle class, altering social dynamics and consumption patterns. D.L. Sheth observed that this class plays a pivotal role in driving economic and cultural change in urban India.
4. Skill-Based Stratification:Technological advancements have increased demand for skilled labor, leaving unskilled workers marginalized. This shift has widened income disparities, creating sharper divisions within the industrial workforce.
5. Increased Women’s Participation:More women are joining the industrial workforce, contributing to changing gender dynamics in the class structure. However, wage gaps and glass ceilings persist, limiting their full integration and advancement.
6. Impact of Globalization:The integration of India’s economy into global markets has introduced multinational corporations and modern work cultures. This has reshaped employment practices, emphasizing productivity and competitiveness while altering traditional labor relations.

Conclusion:India’s industrial class structure is transitioning toward informality and skill-based divisions, reshaping its socio-economic landscape. These changes have far-reaching implications for labor relations, income inequality, and societal dynamics in the evolving industrial economy.

(c) Is patriarchy a key to understanding different forms of inequalities in Indian society? Elaborate.    (10 Marks)
Ans:Patriarchy, as a system of male dominance, is fundamental to understanding the multifaceted inequalities in Indian society. It structures social relations, norms, and institutions, perpetuating gender hierarchies that intersect with caste, class, and religion.

1. Kinship Systems:Indian sociologist Leela Dube emphasized how patriarchy shapes kinship systems, subordinating women within family and societal structures. For instance, patrilineal inheritance marginalizes women in property rights, reinforcing economic disparities and limiting their autonomy.
2. Sanskritization:M.N. Srinivas’s concept of ‘Sanskritization’ illustrates how lower castes emulate upper-caste practices to achieve social mobility. These practices often include patriarchal norms, thereby propagating gender inequality across caste strata.
3. Labor Division:Patriarchal norms dictate a gendered division of labor, confining women to unpaid domestic work while men dominate the public sphere. This results in gender wage gaps and limited career opportunities for women, perpetuating economic dependence.
4. Agrarian Structures:In rural India, agrarian structures often exclude women from land ownership, despite their critical role in farming and agricultural activities. This exclusion reinforces economic and social subordination.
5. Intersectionality:Patriarchy intersects with caste-based oppression, as highlighted by scholars like Sharmila Rege. Dalit women face compounded discrimination due to both caste and gender, exemplifying intersectional inequalities and systemic marginalization.

Conclusion:Patriarchy is central to understanding and addressing the intertwined inequalities in Indian society. It influences social, economic, and cultural life, making it essential to challenge patriarchal norms and structures for achieving gender justice and broader social equity.

(d) Do you think that family bondings are being affected by the changing kinship patterns in India? Comment.    (10 Marks)
Ans:
Changing Kinship Patterns and Family Bonding in India
The structure of Indian family life is undergoing significant transformation due to shifting kinship patterns influenced by urbanization, modernization, and globalization. These changes are redefining traditional familial relationships and roles, long considered the bedrock of Indian society.

1. Nuclearization of Families:

• There is a growing shift from joint family structures to nuclear family units, particularly in urban areas.
• This trend alters intergenerational dynamics, with younger generations becoming more independent from extended family.
• Sociologist A.M. Shah highlighted this transition, noting how it fosters individuality but potentially reduces traditional support mechanisms.

2. Urbanization and Migration:

• Rural-to-urban migration physically separates family members, weakening traditional kinship ties.
• However, it also creates new forms of extended family networks in urban settings, termed “modified extended families” that remain connected through technology.
• These networks adapt to the needs of urban lifestyles while retaining elements of traditional family structures.

3. Changing Gender Roles:

• Increasing workforce participation of women reshapes traditional family roles, promoting more egalitarian relationships.
• This shift introduces challenges such as work-family balance and alters responsibilities related to child-rearing and elderly care.
• I.P. Desai observed how these changes impact intergenerational relationships, often leading to shifts in caregiving dynamics and family decision-making.

4. Functionalist Perspective:

• From a functionalist viewpoint, Talcott Parsons argued that nuclear families are better suited to industrialized societies, offering flexibility and mobility.
• This shift may result in reduced interaction with extended kin while emphasizing the adaptation of family structures to meet the demands of modern economic systems.

5. Examples of Changing Patterns:

• The rise of nuclear households in urban areas, with elderly parents living alone or in care homes.
• Shifts in marriage practices, including the increasing prevalence of intercaste and love marriages.
• Growing acceptance of live-in relationships, particularly in urban and metropolitan contexts, reflecting changing societal norms.

Conclusion:The changing kinship patterns and family bonding in India reflect the interplay between traditional values and modern influences. While these shifts foster individuality and flexibility, they also pose challenges to traditional support systems, necessitating new ways of maintaining familial connections and care within a rapidly transforming society.

(e) Despite the efforts of the government, bonded labour still continues in India. Discuss.    (10 Marks)
Ans:
Bonded Labour in India
Bonded labour, a form of forced labour where individuals are compelled by debt or coercion to work, persists in India despite government interventions such as the Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act, 1976. This social evil endures due to entrenched socio-economic and systemic factors.

Sociological Perspective:

• Structural Factors: Persistent poverty and inequality perpetuate bonded labour by limiting opportunities for upward mobility.
• Marxist Theory: Economic exploitation under capitalism forces the proletariat into conditions of bonded labour, where they are exploited by the ruling class.
• Feudal Remnants and Caste Hierarchies:M.N. Srinivas highlighted how dominance by higher castes in rural areas perpetuates practices like bonded labour.
• Social Exclusion: Marginalized communities such as Dalits and Adivasis are particularly vulnerable due to limited access to education, resources, and legal awareness.
• Systemic Caste Oppression:Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s insights from Annihilation of Caste illustrate how entrenched caste hierarchies sustain injustices like bonded labour.

Economic Factors:

• Indebtedness: Informal, high-interest lending practices trap individuals, creating cycles of dependence and servitude.
• Intergenerational Bondage: The vicious cycle of poverty often leads families to pass down bonded labour practices across generations.
• Lack of Alternate Employment: In rural areas with limited economic opportunities, individuals are compelled to accept exploitative labour conditions.

Implementation Issues:

• Poor Law Enforcement: Corruption and lack of political will at grassroots levels undermine the effectiveness of laws.
• Functionalist Perspective: Societal institutions fail to uphold laws, reflecting structural weaknesses in addressing systemic issues.

Modern Forms of Bonded Labour:

• Urban Migrant Workers: Migrants in urban centers without legal protections often become trapped in exploitative working conditions.
• Industries of Exploitation: Sectors such as brick kilns, carpet weaving, and construction are known for employing bonded labourers under coercive terms.

Conclusion:Despite legal and governmental efforts, bonded labour remains a reality due to deep-rooted socio-economic and systemic factors. Effective eradication requires a multifaceted approach, including better enforcement of laws, education and awareness programs, alternate employment opportunities, and dismantling structural inequalities that sustain this exploitative practice.

Q2: (a) Differentiate between 'Western' and 'Indological' perspectives on the study of Indian society. Bring out the major aspects of G. S. Ghurye’s contribution to 'Indological' approach.    (20 Marks)
Ans:
Differentiation Between Western and Indological Perspectives on Indian Society and G.S. Ghurye’s Contribution
The study of Indian society has been approached through diverse frameworks, with Western and Indological perspectives being two prominent methodologies. These approaches differ in their focus, methods, and interpretation of Indian social structures.

Western Perspectives:

• Rooted in European sociological traditions, applying universal theories such as Marxism, functionalism, or Weberian theory to Indian contexts.
• Methodology: Emphasizes empirical methods, quantitative analysis, and cross-cultural comparisons.
• Focus: Concentrates on themes like modernization, social change, and development.
• Key Scholars: M.N. Srinivas and Louis Dumont.
• Example: Louis Dumont’s Homo Hierarchicus used structuralism to analyze the caste system, situating it within a universal framework of social stratification.

Indological Perspectives:

• Centers on indigenous sources, classical texts, and traditional knowledge to understand Indian society.
• Methodology: Focuses on textual analysis of scriptures such as the Vedas, Dharmashastras, and epics for holistic understanding.
• Focus: Highlights the uniqueness, continuity, and cultural contextualization of Indian civilization.
• Key Scholars: P.V. Kane and G.S. Ghurye.
• Example: P.V. Kane’s History of Dharmashastra offered insights into ancient legal and social codes, emphasizing the sociological relevance of traditional texts.

G.S. Ghurye’s Contribution to the Indological Approach:

• Bridged textual analysis and empirical research, synthesizing traditional and modern perspectives.
• In Caste and Race in India, he analyzed the caste system using historical texts and explored its racial and hierarchical dimensions.
• Challenged the isolationist view of tribal studies, arguing that Indian tribes are “backward Hindus” integrated into the broader Hindu society.
• Emphasized India’s cultural unity, highlighting common religious and cultural practices despite diversity.
• Explored the impact of modernization on family structures and urban life through Indological insights.
• Studied Hindu-Muslim relations, stressing cultural synthesis and shared traditions as factors of social cohesion.
• Researched Indian Sadhus, illustrating the role of asceticism in preserving Hindu traditions and spirituality.

Conclusion:G.S. Ghurye’s work significantly advanced the Indological approach by combining textual analysis with empirical methods. His culturally nuanced insights provided a comprehensive and authentic understanding of Indian society, bridging traditional knowledge and modern sociological perspectives.

(b) What are the definitional problems involved in identifying tribes in India? Discuss the main obstacles to tribal development in India.    (20 Marks)
Ans:
Identification and Development of Tribes
The identification and development of tribes in India involve intricate sociological, cultural, and administrative challenges. These issues are rooted in historical legacies and current socio-political dynamics. The term “tribe” itself is contested, with anthropologists like Verrier Elwin cautioning against stereotyping and emphasizing the fluidity of tribal identities.

Definitional Problems in Identifying Tribes:

1. Heterogeneity: Tribes in India exhibit immense diversity in language, culture, and socioeconomic conditions, making a uniform definition difficult.
2. Colonial Legacy: The colonial classification of tribes as “primitive” perpetuated stereotypes. Scholars like G.S. Ghurye criticized these definitions for reinforcing discriminatory notions.
3. Criteria Ambiguity: The Constitution recognizes Scheduled Tribes, but lacks clear criteria for identification. The Lokur Committee (1965) suggested subjective and outdated parameters, such as primitive traits and geographical isolation.
4. Socioeconomic Changes: Modernization has transformed traditional tribal lifestyles, making fixed classifications problematic.

Main Obstacles to Tribal Development:

1. Land Alienation: Development projects like the Sardar Sarovar Dam have displaced thousands of tribal families without adequate rehabilitation or compensation.
2. Limited Access to Services: Poor infrastructure in remote tribal areas restricts access to education, healthcare, and other basic services, contributing to low literacy rates and poor health outcomes.
3. Economic Exploitation: Tribals face exploitation by moneylenders and traders due to lack of formal financial access, often falling into debt traps and poverty.
4. Cultural Assimilation Pressures: Assimilationist policies, rather than integrative ones, threaten tribal identities and traditional practices.
5. Policy Implementation Gaps: Despite protective measures like the Forest Rights Act (2006), weak implementation and bureaucratic inefficiencies prevent tribes from fully exercising their rights.
6. Political Marginalization: Limited political representation results in insufficient attention to tribal issues in policymaking and governance.

Conclusion:Effectively addressing the challenges of tribal identification and development requires policies that account for the diversity and unique needs of tribal communities. Empowering tribes through inclusive development, protecting their cultural heritage, and ensuring robust implementation of supportive legislation are crucial for sustainable progress.

(c) What, according to Andre Beteille, are the bases of agrarian class structure in India? Analyse.    (10 Marks)
Ans:
André Béteille’s Analysis of Agrarian Class Structure in India
André Béteille extensively studied rural stratification in India, offering a multidimensional understanding of its agrarian class structure. His seminal work, Caste, Class, and Power, highlights the intricate interplay between economic, social, and political factors.

1. Land Ownership:
Béteille identified control over land as the primary determinant of agrarian class distinctions.

• Rural society is divided into large landowners, small peasant proprietors, and landless laborers.
• Land ownership directly influences wealth, status, and power in agrarian settings.

2. Caste System:
Although not perfectly aligned, caste correlates with class in rural India.

• Upper castes typically held larger tracts of land, reinforcing economic dominance.
• Lower castes were often relegated to roles as landless laborers, perpetuating social and economic inequalities.

3. Relations of Production:
Béteille analyzed the system of tenancy, including sharecropping and other arrangements.

• These systems created intermediary classes between landowners and laborers, complicating the agrarian class hierarchy.
• The relations of production reflected both economic dependency and power asymmetries.

4. Status and Power Dynamics:
Land ownership was closely tied to local political influence, often reinforcing caste hierarchies.

• Economic power from landownership translated into political authority, cementing the dominance of the upper classes in village governance.

5. Economic Shifts:
Béteille noted that modernization and commercialization of agriculture were reshaping traditional class structures.

• Changes in agricultural practices and market integration provided opportunities for mobility between classes, occasionally disrupting the caste-class overlap.

Conclusion:André Béteille’s analysis of India’s agrarian class structure emphasizes the interconnectedness of land, caste, and power in rural society. His work highlights how economic, social, and political factors converge to shape stratification, while also recognizing the potential for change through modernization and shifts in production relations.

Q3: (a) Why is the study of marriage important in Sociology? Analyse the implications of changing marriage patterns for Indian society.    (20 Marks)
Ans:
The Sociological Significance of Marriage
The study of marriage is essential in sociology as it provides insights into societal norms, cultural practices, and social transformations. Marriage is a key institution that reflects and influences the structure and dynamics of societies.

1. Social Structure:
Marriage is a foundational institution that embodies societal norms and shapes social hierarchies, including kinship and inheritance systems.

2. Cultural Insights:
The study of marriage offers understanding of kinship systems, gender roles, and how cultures maintain continuity or adapt to change.

3. Theoretical Applications:

• Functionalists (e.g., Durkheim) see marriage as essential for maintaining social stability and fulfilling functions like reproduction and socialization.
• Conflict theorists analyze power dynamics and inequalities within marriage, particularly gender-based imbalances.
• Symbolic interactionists explore the meanings individuals assign to marriage and how those meanings shape their relationships and interactions.

4. Social Organization:
Marriage regulates critical societal functions, such as reproduction, child-rearing, and inheritance, ensuring societal continuity.

5. Indicator of Change:
Changing marriage patterns often signify broader societal transformations, reflecting shifts in cultural, economic, and political contexts.

Changing Marriage Patterns in India and Their Implications:
1. Rise of Love Marriages:

• Challenges: Traditional arranged marriage norms tied to caste and family preferences.
• Implications: Enhances individual autonomy and potentially weakens caste and community-based social ties.

2. Inter-caste and Inter-religious Unions:

• Facilitators: Legal frameworks like the Special Marriage Act enable such unions.
• Implications: Promotes social integration and challenges entrenched caste and religious boundaries.

3. Increasing Marriage Age:

• Reasons: Greater emphasis on education and career development, particularly for women.
• Implications: Impacts fertility rates, encourages family planning, and boosts women’s workforce participation.

4. Decline of Dowry Practices:

• Drivers: Legal measures and evolving societal attitudes.
• Implications: Reduces economic burden on families, challenges gender-based inequalities, and empowers women.

5. Emergence of Nuclear Families:

• Drivers: Urbanization and rising individualistic values.
• Implications: Alters traditional elder care and intergenerational relationships, reducing reliance on joint family structures for social support.

6. Discourse on Same-Sex Marriages:

• Emergence: Post-Section 377 decriminalization, debates about legalizing same-sex marriages are gaining traction.
• Implications: Challenges traditional family structures, necessitates legal and societal adaptations, and fosters inclusivity.

Conclusion:The study of marriage provides a lens to examine societal dynamics and shifts. In India, evolving marriage patterns highlight profound social, cultural, and economic transformations, reflecting the nation’s adaptation to modern values while challenging long-standing traditions. These changes demand policy adaptations and a reimagining of the social fabric.

(b) Do you think that the constitutional provisions for women have led to their uplift? Give reasons for your answer.    (20 Marks)
Ans:
Constitutional Provisions for Women’s Upliftment in India
The Indian Constitution incorporates several provisions aimed at achieving gender equality and empowering women. While these legal frameworks provide a foundation for women’s upliftment, their impact must be assessed in the context of both legal advancements and societal realities.

Key Constitutional Provisions:

• Articles 14 and 15: Ensure equality and prohibit discrimination on the grounds of sex.
• Article 15(3): Empowers the state to make special provisions for women to address systemic disadvantages.
• Directive Principles of State Policy: Advocate for equal pay for equal work and promote women’s welfare.
• 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments: Mandate one-third reservation for women in local governance, ensuring their political representation.

Impact of Constitutional Provisions:

• Education: Female literacy rates increased significantly, from 8.86% in 1951 to 65.46% in 2011, reflecting growing educational access.
• Political Participation: Over one million women actively participate in local governance, influencing policy decisions at the grassroots level.
• Economic Opportunities: Legal safeguards facilitated women’s entry into diverse professions, contributing to economic independence and empowerment.

This progress resonates with B.R. Ambedkar’s emphasis on legal reforms for societal transformation and Jyotirao Phule’s advocacy for women’s education as a catalyst for change.

Persisting Challenges:

• Patriarchal Structures: Deep-rooted gender norms and stereotypes impede the full realization of constitutional ideals.
• Reinforcement of Inequality: Sociologist Leela Dube highlighted how family and kinship systems perpetuate gender-based disparities.
• Ongoing Issues: Gender-based violence, wage gaps, and political underrepresentation continue to challenge gender parity. Practices like dowry and female foeticide persist despite legal prohibitions.
• Intersectionality:Gail Omvedt pointed out how caste, class, and gender intersections exacerbate marginalization. Dalit and tribal women face compounded forms of discrimination, limiting the effectiveness of constitutional safeguards.

Implementation Challenges:

• Lack of Awareness: Many women remain unaware of their constitutional rights.
• Inadequate Enforcement: Weak implementation mechanisms and bureaucratic inefficiencies hinder the realization of legal provisions.
• Resistance from Dominant Ideologies: Extending M.N. Srinivas’s concept of “dominant caste” to gender, dominant patriarchal ideologies often resist legal and social reforms.

Conclusion:While the Indian Constitution provides a robust framework for women’s upliftment, its full potential remains unrealized due to societal barriers and implementation gaps. Addressing these issues requires a combination of legal enforcement, societal transformation, and awareness-building, ensuring a holistic approach to achieving gender equality.

(c) Education is a key to social development. Elucidate.    (10 Marks)
Ans:
Education: Key to Social Development
Education is a cornerstone of social development, equipping individuals with knowledge, skills, and values essential for societal progress. It plays a transformative role in fostering equality, integration, and modernization.

Integration and National Unity:

• In the Indian context, G.S. Ghurye emphasized education’s role in integrating diverse cultural groups, fostering national unity within a pluralistic society.

Social Mobility:

• M.N. Srinivas’s concept of “Sanskritization” highlights how marginalized groups leverage educational opportunities to elevate their social status, challenging caste hierarchies.

Modernization:

• Yogendra Singh underscored education’s instrumental role in India’s modernization, enabling structural differentiation and weakening traditional hierarchies.

Social Emancipation:

• B.R. Ambedkar regarded education as a tool for empowering oppressed classes, enabling them to challenge entrenched social inequalities and achieve self-determination.

Inclusive Access:

• André Béteille analyzed how reservation policies in educational institutions aim to bridge social gaps.
• Initiatives like the Right to Education Act ensure inclusive access, promoting equity across caste, class, and gender lines.

Economic Growth:

• Education enhances human capital, fueling innovation and economic advancement.
• India’s booming IT sector exemplifies how education drives societal progress and global competitiveness.

Community Development:

• Mahatma Gandhi’s Nai Talim emphasized education for self-reliance and grassroots development, aligning education with community empowerment.

Conclusion:Education is a powerful catalyst for social development, fostering integration, equality, and progress. In India, it has been pivotal in promoting unity, enabling marginalized groups, and driving economic and social transformation, making it an essential pillar for a progressive society.

Q4: (a) How do religious communities contribute to the cultural diversity of India?     (20 Marks)
Ans:
India’s Religious Communities and Cultural Diversity
India’s religious communities significantly contribute to its rich cultural diversity, fostering a pluralistic and inclusive society. This diversity reflects G.S. Ghurye’s idea of India’s unity in diversity, where various religions coexist and interact harmoniously.

1. Cultural Assimilation and Diversity:

• M.N. Srinivas’s concept of Sanskritization explains how lower castes adopt practices of higher castes, often intertwined with religious customs, leading to cultural assimilation.
• Conversely, Westernization, influenced by Christian missionaries and colonial education, introduced new cultural elements, further diversifying societal practices and traditions.

2. Syncretic Traditions:

• T.N. Madan highlighted the blending of religious practices that enrich India’s cultural expressions.
• The Bhakti movement and Sufi traditions exemplify Hindu-Islamic intermingling, producing shared devotional music, poetry, and art.
• Saints like Kabir and Guru Nanak spread messages transcending religious boundaries, promoting inclusivity and tolerance.

3. Modernization and Adaptation:

• As Yogendra Singh discussed in the modernization of Indian traditions, religious communities adapt global influences within local contexts.
• For instance, the celebration of Christmas in India incorporates regional customs, particularly in states like Goa and the Northeast, reflecting localized adaptations of global religious festivals.

4. Culinary Diversity:

• Religious dietary practices enrich India’s culinary landscape:
  • Vegetarianism associated with Hinduism and Jainism.
  • The rich Mughlai cuisine introduced by Muslims.
  • Unique Christian culinary traditions, particularly in Kerala and Goa.
• These traditions create a diverse gastronomic mosaic that reflects India’s pluralism.

5. Traditional Attire:

• Religion influences India’s traditional clothing, adding to its visual diversity:
  • The Sikh turban symbolizes faith and identity.
  • The Muslim hijab and Christian clergy robes signify cultural and religious affiliations.
  • Hindu attire like the saree and dhoti represent traditional customs.

Conclusion:India’s religious communities profoundly enhance its cultural diversity by contributing unique yet interwoven traditions. This interplay of customs and beliefs creates a dynamic and pluralistic society, exemplifying harmony through diversity while enriching India’s cultural heritage.

(b) What do you understand by decentralisation of power? What is its role in strengthening the roots of democracy in India? Elaborate.    (20 Marks)
Ans:Decentralization refers to the transfer of decision-making authority, resources, and responsibilities from the central government to local or regional levels. In India, this process empowers Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) and municipalities to govern local affairs, strengthening grassroots democracy.

Role of Decentralization in Strengthening Indian Democracy:
1. Grassroots Participation:

• Decentralization fosters direct citizen involvement in governance, enabling communities to shape decisions that affect their lives.
• The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments institutionalized local self-governance, reflecting Mahatma Gandhi’s vision of Gram Swaraj (village self-rule).

2. Effective Governance:

• Local bodies like Gram Panchayats are better equipped to identify and address community-specific needs.
• They implement programs related to education, healthcare, and infrastructure, driving development at the grassroots level.

3. Social Justice and Empowerment:

• Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), and women in local bodies ensures the representation of marginalized groups.
• Feminist sociologists highlight how women’s participation in PRIs challenges traditional gender roles, fostering empowerment and equality.

4. Functionalist Perspective:

• From a functionalist view, decentralization promotes social stability and integration by distributing power.
• This aligns with Durkheim’s concept of collective conscience, enhancing community solidarity and cohesion.

5. Accountability:

• Local leaders are more accessible to the public, fostering transparency and responsiveness in governance.
• This proximity ensures greater citizen oversight and reduces bureaucratic delays.

6. Capacity Building:

• Local governance serves as a platform for nurturing political leadership and democratic skills, preparing individuals for higher roles in governance.

7. Resource Allocation:

• Decentralization enables efficient and targeted allocation of resources, addressing local priorities effectively and equitably.

Challenges in Decentralization:

• Inadequate Financial Devolution: Local bodies often lack sufficient funds to fulfill their mandates.
• Limited Administrative Capacity: Shortages of skilled personnel and technical expertise hinder effective functioning.
• Political Interference: Centralized control and partisan politics can undermine the autonomy of local institutions.

Conclusion:Decentralization strengthens Indian democracy by fostering grassroots participation, ensuring representation, and improving governance. However, addressing challenges like financial constraints, administrative inefficiencies, and political interference is essential to fully realize its potential and empower local institutions to drive sustainable development and inclusivity.

(c) What are the different forms of untouchability still practised in India? Discuss with suitable illustrations.     (10 Marks)
Ans:
Untouchability in Contemporary India
Despite its constitutional abolition, untouchability persists in various forms in India, highlighting deeply entrenched caste-based discrimination. These practices continue to perpetuate inequality and social exclusion across multiple spheres of life.

1. Social Segregation:

• Dalits are often denied entry into temples and other public spaces, reflecting Louis Dumont’s concept of purity and pollution.
• Example: In rural Tamil Nadu, Dalits are frequently barred from entering temples or are forced to worship from a distance.

2. ‘Two-Tumbler System’:

• Separate utensils for Dalits in eateries exemplify everyday discrimination, reinforcing social hierarchies and dehumanizing individuals.

3. Occupation-Based Discrimination:

• Despite being banned, manual scavenging persists, disproportionately involving Dalits in unhygienic and hazardous work.
• This supports Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s observation on the caste-occupation nexus, where caste determines access to dignified livelihoods.

4. Educational Discrimination:

• Dalit students often face segregated seating arrangements and derogatory remarks from teachers, impacting their academic performance and self-esteem.
• These practices hinder the realization of inclusive education.

5. Housing Discrimination:

• Dalits frequently live in segregated colonies with inadequate access to basic amenities such as clean water, electricity, and sanitation, perpetuating systemic inequality.

6. Political Discrimination:

• In village councils, separate seating arrangements for Dalits undermine democratic equality and restrict their active participation in governance.

Conclusion:The persistence of untouchability underscores the enduring nature of caste-based discrimination in India. Legal measures alone are insufficient to address this issue; societal transformation, through education, awareness, and grassroots mobilization, is essential to uphold the constitutional ideals of equality and justice. Breaking these barriers requires a collective effort to challenge and dismantle caste hierarchies and their social manifestations.