War of Succession by Shahjahan’s Sons: Aurangzeb and Dara Shikoh | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

• Shuja, the second eldest, became the governor of Bengal in 1637 and managed the challenging province effectively for twenty years.
• Murad, the youngest, was made governor of Gujarat, with Malwa added to his responsibilities later.
• Aurangzeb was appointed viceroy of the Deccan at just eighteen in 1636, a position he held for six years and then again in 1652.
• Dara, the eldest, governed Allahabad and later Lahore. He was his father's favorite and often stayed close to Shah Jahan, which caused jealousy among his brothers.

Brotherly Rivalry:

• Dara’s closeness to their father led to resentment from Shuja, Murad, and Aurangzeb, who eventually united against him.
• In 1652, Shuja arranged a marriage alliance between his daughter and Aurangzeb’s son, Sultan Muhammad, while Aurangzeb promised his daughter to Shuja’s son.
• The competence of the princes complicated the succession issue, making it likely to be a long and bloody process.
• There was no clear Muslim tradition for succession. Over time, the right to nominate a successor by a successful ruler became accepted, but the eldest son did not have special rights.
• The Timurid practice of partitioning power was not adopted in India, although it was often considered.
• Ultimately, connections with powerful military leaders, along with military strength and capability, became the key factors in determining succession.

Shah Jahan's Illness and Succession Struggle:

• Shah Jahan, residing in the newly built Shahjahanabad(Delhi), fell ill in September 1657. He recovered with Dara’s care, but rumors spread that he had died and Dara was hiding this for his own gain.
• By December 1657, Shah Jahan was strong enough to travel to Agra. Meanwhile, his sons Shuja in Bengal, Murad in Gujarat, and Aurangzeb in the Deccan either believed these rumors or pretended to, preparing for the upcoming struggle for succession.

Shah Jahan had long considered Dara as his rightful successor.

• In 1654, Dara Shikoh was given the title Sultan Buland Iqbal and a golden chair near the throne. His rank was raised, reaching an unprecedented 60,000 zat and 40,000 sawar by 1658.
• Dara was also named the successor (wali ahd). However, this favoritism alienated other princes, intensifying their desire for the throne.
• The rivalry between Dara and his brother Aurangzeb was fueled by Aurangzeb’s belief that Dara was using their father, Shah Jahan, to undermine him.
• After unsuccessful campaigns in Qandahar, Aurangzeb was transferred to the Deccan, which was less productive. This transfer caused him significant losses.
• The Deccan was a chronically deficit area, requiring cash subsidies from Malwa and Gujarat to cover government expenses. Shah Jahan wanted the deficit addressed through improved cultivation.
• Aurangzeb, with the help of Murshid Quli Khan, tried to improve the Deccan’s productivity, but Shah Jahan accused him of negligence and incompetence.
• Aurangzeb faced financial difficulties and sought Shah Jahan’s permission to attack Golconda and Bijapur for their treasures and territory. However, Shah Jahan compromised with these states, which Aurangzeb resented.
• Dara and Aurangzeb had starkly different characters and beliefs. Dara was interested in liberal Sufi and Bhakti saints and the concept of monotheism, while Aurangzeb was focused on the Quran and religious rituals.
• Their rivalry did not split the nobility into liberal and orthodox factions; nobles acted based on personal contacts and interests.
• Shah Jahan sent an army led by Sulaiman Shikoh to confront Shuja, while another army under Raja Jaswant Singh was sent to persuade Murad to turn back.
• At Dharmat, Jaswant Singh found Murad and Aurangzeb united. The Battle of Dharmat on April 15, 1658, resulted in Aurangzeb’s victory, boosting his supporters and disappointing Dara.
• Dara made a critical mistake by dividing his best troops for the eastern campaign, weakening Agra.
• Sulaiman Shikoh’s army defeated Shuja near Banaras in February 1658 and decided to pursue him into Bihar.
• After the defeat at Dharmat, Dara attempted to seek allies, reaching out to Jaswant Singh and the Rana of Udaipur.
• Jaswant Singh, initially hesitant, began raising an army but failed to secure the Rana's support, who had sided with Aurangzeb.
• Dara’s efforts to gain Rajput support were unsuccessful, further isolating him in the power struggle.

Battle of Samugarh

• Fought on 29 May 1658 between Dara Shikoh and his brothers Aurangzeb and Murad Baksh.
• Both sides had similar numbers, around 50,000 to 60,000 each, making it a close contest.
• Dara struggled against Aurangzeb's strong leadership and experienced troops.
• Dara relied heavily on the Hada Rajputs and Saiyids of Barha, but they couldn't compensate for the weaknesses of his hastily assembled army.
• Dara's arrogance and overconfidence led to his downfall, as he failed to win the support of key nobles and ignored the advice of more capable leaders.
• It was a mistake for Dara to confront Aurangzeb directly while Shah Jahan was still the emperor.
• The conflict wasn't about religious differences; both Muslim and Hindu nobles were equally divided in their support for Dara and Aurangzeb.
• Among nobles of 1000 zat rank and above, support was nearly even before the battle.
• Princess Jahanara was close to Dara but still maintained relations with her other brothers.
• After Dara's defeat, Shah Jahan was besieged in Agra Fort and eventually forced to surrender by Aurangzeb.
• Shah Jahan was confined in the fort for eight years, cared for by Jahanara.
• After Shah Jahan's death, Jahanara was honored by Aurangzeb and restored to a prominent position.
• Aurangzeb increased her annual pension significantly as a mark of respect.

After Battle of Samugarh

• According to the agreement between Aurangzeb and Murad, the empire was to be divided, with Murad governing Punjab,Kabul,Kashmir, and Sindh.
• Aurangzeb, however, had no intention of sharing the empire. He cunningly imprisoned Murad and sent him to Gwalior Jail, where Murad was eventually killed two years later.
• After losing the battle at Samugarh,Dara fled to Lahore and planned to maintain control over the surrounding areas. However, Aurangzeb soon arrived with a strong army, forcing Dara to abandon Lahore without a fight and flee to Sindh.
• The civil war continued for over two years, but the outcome was largely inevitable. Dara moved from Sindh to Gujarat and then to Ajmer, initially invited by Jaswant Singh, the ruler of Marwar.
• The battle of Deorai near Ajmer in March 1659 was Dara's last significant confrontation against Aurangzeb.
• Dara considered escaping to Iran but decided to try his luck in Afghanistan first. However, in the Bolan Pass, an Afghan chief captured him and handed him over to Aurangzeb.
• A panel of jurists declared that Dara must be executed to protect the faith and state, reflecting how Aurangzeb used religion to justify political actions.
• Two years after Dara's execution, his son Sulaiman Shikoh met a similar fate. Earlier, Aurangzeb had defeated Dara's brother Shuja at Khanwah near Allahabad in December 1658.
• Shuja was eventually driven out of India into Arakan by Mir Jumla and met a dishonorable death there.
• The civil war highlighted that neither the ruler's nomination nor plans for empire division were acceptable to the contenders. Military force became the sole arbiter for succession, leading to increasingly destructive civil wars.
• After securing his position, Aurangzeb attempted to mitigate the harsh Mughal custom of fratricidal warfare. At the urging of Jahanara Begum, he released Sipihr Shikoh, Dara's son, from prison in 1671, granting him a mansab and marrying him to one of Aurangzeb's daughters.
• Similarly, Murad's son Izzat Bakhsh was released, given a mansab, and married to another daughter of Aurangzeb. Earlier, in 1669, Dara's daughter Jani Begum had been married to Aurangzeb's son  Muhammad Azam, reflecting the intermarriages between Aurangzeb's family and the children of his defeated brothers.

Dara Shikoh: Intellectual Pursuit and Arts

• Dara Shikoh, the eldest son of Shah Jahan, was the most favored heir to the throne.
• He was given the title Padshahzada-i-Buzurg Martaba("Prince of High Rank") and was supported by his father and sister, Jahanara Begum.
• Dara was also known as Shah-i-Buland Iqbal and was appointed Governor of Bihar in 1657.
• When Emperor Shah Jahan fell ill in September 1657, a power struggle ensued among his sons, with Dara and Aurangzeb as the main contenders.
• Dara lost the struggle for the Mughal Empire throne to Aurangzeb.
• He was defeated at the Battle of Samugarh on May 30, 1658, leading to Aurangzeb taking control of Agra Fort and deposing Shah Jahan on June 8, 1658.
• Dara was executed by Aurangzeb in 1659 on charges of heresy.
• Despite his defeat, Dara Shikoh was known for his liberal views and interest in pantheism.
• He was a follower of the Persian mystic saint Sarmad Kashani and the Qadiri Sufi saint Hazrat Mian Mir.
• Dara sought to find a common mystical language between Islam and Hinduism.
• He translated 52 Upanishads from Sanskrit to Persian, believing they were the "Kitab al-maknun" mentioned in the Qur'an.
• His famous work,Majma-ul-Bahrain("The Confluence of the Two Seas"), explored the mystical links between Sufism and Vedanta.
• Other notable works included Safinat-ul-Auliya,Sakinat-ul-Auliya, and Hasanat-ul-Arifin.
• Dara was a patron of thefine arts,music, anddancing, which Aurangzeb disapproved of.
• The Dara Shikoh album, a collection of paintings and calligraphy, was created during his life.
• Dara Shikoh also established a library that still exists today in Delhi.
• He commissioned several exquisite examples of Mughal architecture, including:
  • the tomb of his wife Nadira Banu in Lahore,
  • the tomb of Hazrat Mian Mir in Lahore,
  • the Dara Shikoh Library in Delhi,
  • the Akhun Mullah Shah Mosque in Srinagar, Kashmir, and
  • the Pari Mahal garden palace in Srinagar.
• Many scholars believe that if Dara had become emperor instead of Aurangzeb, the history of the Mughal Empire in the late 17th Century would have been very different.