World War I: Paris Peace Settlement | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Paris Peace Conference

The Challenge of Peace Settlement

• At the beginning of the war, the participants had no clear ideas about their objectives, except for Germany and Austria, who aimed to preserve the Habsburg Empire by defeating Serbia. As the war progressed, some governments started outlining their war aims to motivate their troops.

British War Aims:

• British Prime Minister Lloyd George emphasized the defense of democracy and rectifying the injustice done to France in 1871 when Germany took Alsace and Lorraine.
• Other points included the restoration of Belgium and Serbia, an independent Poland, democratic self-government for the nationalities of Austria-Hungary, self-determination for German colonies, and the establishment of an international organization to prevent future wars.
• He was also determined that Germany should pay reparations for the damage caused during the war.

American War Aims:

• American President Woodrow Wilson outlined US war aims in his famous 14 Points, which included the abolition of secret diplomacy, free navigation at sea, removal of economic barriers, reduction of armaments, impartial adjustment of colonial claims, evacuation of Russian territory, restoration of Belgium, liberation of France, readjustment of Italian frontiers, self-government for the peoples of Austria-Hungary, evacuation of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro, self-government for non-Turkish peoples of the Turkish Empire, an independent Poland, and a general association of nations to preserve peace.
• These points gained publicity when the Germans later claimed they expected the peace terms to be based on them, and felt cheated when this was not the case.

Clash of Interests and Personalities at the Paris Peace Conference

France (represented by George Clemenceau):

• France aimed for a harsh peace to incapacitate Germany economically and militarily, ensuring it could never threaten French borders again.
• Having been invaded by Germans five times since 1814, France prioritized its security. France sought to reclaim Saar, Ruhr, and Alsace & Lorraine and wanted Germany and Austria to remain divided.
• Clemenceau, known as the "Tiger" for his determination, was a seasoned diplomat with deep knowledge of world politics. He dismissed Wilson’s 14 Points, suggesting that even God was satisfied with 10 commandments, mocking Wilson's 14.
• France received some territorial gains, including mineral areas of Alsace & Lorraine, and Germany was weakened commercially and politically, but France could not extend its territory to the left bank of the Rhine.

Britain (represented by Lloyd George):

• Britain favored a less severe settlement, allowing Germany to recover quickly to become a major customer for British goods, given Britain’s isolated and secure position with naval supremacy.
• A flourishing German economy was crucial for reparations payments. Lloyd George was a pragmatic diplomat who opposed imposing excessive reparations on Germany.
• Despite winning an election with slogans like "hang the Kaiser" and "squeeze everything you can out of Germany," Lloyd George recognized the need for a balanced approach between Wilson's idealism and Clemenceau's desire to weaken Germany.

The USA (represented by Woodrow Wilson):

• President Wilson was an idealist who advocated for a lenient, long-lasting peace based on justice and neutrality rather than revenge. He wanted a just peace and aimed to limit reparations to civilian losses instead of the entire war cost.
• Wilson also emphasized self-determination, advocating for nations to be freed from foreign rule and granted democratic governments of their choice.
• However, due to strong opposition from France and Britain, Wilson struggled to achieve his goals at the conference. The USA's disappointment led to its refusal to sign the Treaty of Versailles and join the League of Nations.
• Despite facing challenges at home, where the Republican party held a majority in Congress, the USA's participation in the conference benefited it by influencing British and French policies in the Middle East and limiting Japan's territorial ambitions.

Italy (represented by Orlando):

• Italy sought to expand her colonial empire, extend influence over the Adriatic, and secure border territories populated by Italians. However, most of her claims were not supported by the Allies at the conference.
• Orlando, who focused on issues directly related to Italy, did not play a decisive role in the conference and ended up feeling slighted by the other powers.

By June 1919, the conference produced the Treaty of Versailles for Germany and other treaties for Germany’s former allies. The Treaty of Versailles, in particular, was highly controversial and criticized even by Allied nations for being too harsh on Germany, leading many to believe that it would provoke another war in the future.

Many of the treaty's terms, such as reparations and disarmament, proved difficult to implement.

The Treaty of Versailles with Germany

The Terms

Territorial Losses:

• Germany had to lose territory in Europe:
• Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France.
• Eupen, Moresnet, and Malmedy were ceded to Belgium.
• North Schleswig was given to Denmark following a plebiscite.
• West Prussia and Posen were transferred to Poland, with Danzig (the main port of West Prussia) designated as a free city under League of Nations administration due to its entirely German population.
• Memel was assigned to Lithuania.

Saar under League of Nations:

• The Saar region was administered by the League of Nations for 15 years, after which the population would vote on whether it should belong to France or Germany. During this period, France had the right to use its coal mines.
• Self-Determination for Baltic Nations: Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, which had been transferred to Germany by Russia through the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, were taken from Germany and established as independent states. This was an instance of self-determination being implemented.
• Prohibition of Anschluss: Union (Anschluss) between Germany and Austria was prohibited.
• African Colonies: Germany’s African colonies were taken from it and became ‘mandates’ under League of Nations supervision, meaning various member states of the League would oversee them.
• Limitation of Armaments: German armaments were strictly limited to a maximum of 100,000 troops with no conscription (compulsory military service), and no tanks, armored cars, military aircraft, or submarines. Germany was allowed only six battleships.
• Demilitarization of the Rhineland: The Rhineland was to be permanently demilitarized, meaning all German territory on the left bank of the Rhine and a 50-kilometer strip on the right bank was closed to German troops. Allied troops were to occupy this area for at least ten years.
• War Guilt Clause: The War Guilt clause placed the blame for the war solely on Germany and her allies, and proposed that the ex-Kaiser be tried for war crimes.
• Reparations: Germany was required to pay reparations for the damage caused to the Allies. The actual amount was not determined at Versailles but was announced later (1921) after much debate, set at £6,600 million.
• League of Nations: A League of Nations was established, with its aims and organization outlined in the League Covenant. Despite strong objections, the Germans had little choice but to sign the treaty. The signing ceremony took place in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles, the same place where the German Empire had been proclaimed less than 50 years earlier.

German Objections to the Treaty of Versailles: Justification and Context

The Treaty of Versailles, signed in 1919, was met with significant objections from Germany, who felt the terms were imposed unfairly. Understanding these objections requires examining the context and rationale behind them.

Imposition of Terms:

• The Germans were not part of the discussions at Versailles. Instead, they were simply presented with the terms and told to sign, which led them to label the treaty as a 'dictated peace.'
• Though they could criticize the treaty in writing, most of their objections were ignored. The only concession made was regarding Upper Silesia, an industrial area with a mixed German and Polish population. After a population vote, Germany was allowed to keep about two-thirds of the region.
• Some historians argue that the Germans had a right to object and that their inclusion in the discussions could have softened some of the harsher terms. This inclusion might have also weakened the argument used by Hitler that the peace was a 'Diktat' and thus not morally binding.
• Conversely, it is noted that the Germans could not expect better treatment, given their harsh dealings with the Russians at Brest-Litovsk, which was also a 'Diktat.'

Deviation from Wilson's 14 Points:

• The Germans contended that they were promised terms based on Wilson's 14 Points and that many provisions were not aligned with these points, labeling the treaty as a swindle.
• However, this objection is considered invalid because the 14 Points were never officially accepted by the involved states. The Germans themselves had disregarded these points in January 1918 when victory seemed possible.
• By November 1918, German actions, such as those at Brest-Litovsk and the destruction during their retreat, had hardened the Allied stance. This led Wilson to add points about reparations for civilian damage and disarmament.
• Most of the treaty's terms did comply with the 14 Points, and the Germans were aware of this when they accepted the armistice.

Territorial Losses in Europe:

• Germany lost territories such as Alsace-Lorraine and West Prussia, which were justified on the basis of national self-determination.
• Although the principle of national self-determination was emphasized at the peace conference, it resulted in around a million Germans being placed under Polish rule and nearly three million in the Sudetenland controlled by Czechoslovakia.
• Austria, a completely German state with seven million people, was also forbidden from uniting with Germany, likely to prevent a stronger and larger Germany.

Loss of African Colonies:

• The Germans had legitimate grounds for objecting to the loss of their African colonies. The mandate system allowed Britain, France, and South Africa to take over these territories, which was seen as an annexation under the guise of mandates.

Disarmament Clauses:

• The disarmament clauses were deeply resented by the Germans, who felt that 100,000 troops were insufficient for maintaining order during a time of political unrest.
• While the German objection had some merit, the French desire for a weak Germany was also understandable.
• Over time, the Germans became more aggrieved as it became clear that no other powers intended to disarm, despite Wilson's call for an all-round reduction of armaments.
• Enforcement of disarmament was challenging because the Germans were determined to exploit every loophole.

The War Guilt Clause (Article 231):

• The Germans strongly objected to being held solely responsible for the outbreak of the war. While later research suggested Germany's guilt, it was unfair to reach such a conclusion within six weeks in 1919, as done by the Special Commission on War Responsibility.
• The Allies insisted on this clause to make Germany liable for reparations.

Reparations:

• Reparations were seen as the final humiliation for the Germans. While the principle of reparations was not objectionable, the amount set at £6600 million was considered excessively high.
• Some, like J. M. Keynes, believed a lower amount of £2000 million would be more reasonable and manageable for Germany.
• The high figure led to German protests about the impossibility of payment, resulting in defaults on annual installments. This caused resentment among the Allies, who relied on German payments to settle their own war debts to the USA.
• International tensions arose when France attempted to enforce payments, and eventually, the Allies reduced the amount to £2000 million in the Young Plan of 1929. However, the initial reparations proved disastrous economically and politically.

Conclusion

• While the Germans had valid grounds for complaint regarding the Treaty of Versailles, it is essential to recognize that the treaty could have been even more severe. If French Prime Minister Clemenceau had had his way, the Rhineland would have become an independent state, and France would have annexed the Saar region.
• The objections raised by the Germans reflected their perception of injustice and the harsh realities of the post-war settlement, highlighting the complexities and challenges of establishing peace after such a devastating conflict.

The Peace Treaties with Austria-Hungary

As Austria faced impending defeat in the war, the Habsburg Empire began to break apart, with various nationalities declaring their independence. Austria and Hungary separated and proclaimed themselves republics. By the time the peace conference convened, many crucial decisions had already been made. However, the situation was chaotic, and the conference's role was to formalize and acknowledge what had transpired.

The Treaty of St. Germain (1919), Concerning Austria:

• Dismemberment of the Empire: The treaty marked the disintegration of the Habsburg Empire, dividing it into several new states based on the principle of nationality.
• Creation of Czechoslovakia: The Austrian provinces of Bohemia and Moravia were combined to form the new state of Czechoslovakia.
• Expansion of Serbia: Serbia received the Slavic provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, expanding its territory and later becoming known as Yugoslavia.
• Territorial Cessions to Italy and Poland: Austria ceded South Tyrol, Trentino, and a coastal strip around the north of the Adriatic to Italy. Austrian Galicia was allocated to the reconstituted state of Poland.
• Separation of Hungary: Hungary was separated from Austria, which was reduced to a small state predominantly inhabited by German-speaking people. Austria was prohibited from entering into a political union with Germany, violating the principle of self-determination.

The Treaty of Trianon (1920), Concerning Hungary:

• Loss of Non-Magyar Territories: Hungary was stripped of non-Magyar populations, similar to Austria's loss of non-Germans. Slovakia was ceded to Czechoslovakia, Croatia and Slovenia to Yugoslavia, and Transylvania to Romania.
• Inclusion of League of Nations Covenant: Both treaties included the League of Nations Covenant and stipulated war indemnity and army restrictions.
• Economic Challenges: The treaties left Austria and Hungary with significant economic difficulties. Austria, reduced from a population of 22 million to 6.5 million, lost most of its industrial wealth to Czechoslovakia and Poland. Vienna, once the capital of the vast Habsburg Empire, became isolated, surrounded by agricultural land insufficient to sustain it. Austria soon faced a severe economic crisis, relying on loans from the League of Nations.
• Hungary's Economic Struggles: Hungary, with a population reduced from 21 million to 7.5 million, lost some of its richest farmland to Romania. The introduction of tariffs by the new states complicated matters, hindering trade flow throughout the Danube region and making industrial recovery in Austria particularly challenging.
• Economic Case for Austrian-German Union: There was a strong economic argument for a union between Austria and Germany; however, the settlements, though seemingly harsh, largely adhered to the spirit of self-determination. More people were placed under governments of their own nationality than ever before in Europe, despite some deviations, such as the three million Germans in Sudetenland under Czechoslovak rule and the million Germans under Polish rule.
• Allied Justification: The Allies justified these deviations by arguing that the new states needed these populations for economic viability. Unfortunately, these situations provided Hitler with pretexts for territorial demands on these countries.

The Settlement with Turkey and Bulgaria

The Treaty of Sevres (1920), dealing with Turkey:

• Turkey was forced to give up all rights to its former African colonies and territories in Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia, and Arabia, losing all dominions outside of mainland Turkey.
• Syria was placed under French mandate, while Palestine, Iraq, and Transjordan became British mandates.
• The mandates created tensions because the Arab populations expected independence as a reward for their support against the Turks during World War I, led by T. E. Lawrence (Lawrence of Arabia). The establishment of a Jewish 'national home' in Palestine also caused dissatisfaction among the Arabs.
• The Straits of Dardanelles and Bosphorus, crucial exits from the Black Sea, were to be permanently open and became an international neutral zone.
• Armenia was established as an independent state.
• Turkey lost Eastern Thrace, several Aegean islands, Smyrna, and surrounding areas on the Asian mainland to Greece.
• The significant territorial loss, especially of Smyrna, stirred Turkish national sentiment as it felt ignored in the principle of self-determination.
• Under Mustafa Kemal, the Turks rejected the Treaty of Sevres and expelled the Greeks from Smyrna.
• The Italians and French withdrew their troops from the Straits area, leaving only British forces.
• A revised settlement was achieved through the Treaty of Lausanne (1923), where Turkey regained Eastern Thrace, including Constantinople, and Smyrna.
• Turkey thus became the first state to successfully challenge the post-World War I settlement.

The Treaty of Neuilly (1919), dealing with Bulgaria:

• Bulgaria lost territory to Greece (including her Aegean coastline), Yugoslavia, and Romania.
• Bulgaria could claim that over a million Bulgarians ended up under foreign rule as a result of the Treaty of Neuilly.
• The treaty also included provisions for war indemnity and limitations on the Bulgarian army.

Verdict on the Peace Settlement:

• Overall, the collection of peace treaties was not particularly successful.
• It divided Europe into states wanting to revise the settlement, primarily Germany, and those wishing to uphold it, though the latter showed only lukewarm support.
• The USA's failure to ratify the settlement and join the League of Nations left France disillusioned, as the Anglo-American guarantee of her frontiers was no longer applicable.
• Italy felt shortchanged for not receiving all the territory promised in 1915.
• Russia was ignored due to the reluctance of the powers to negotiate with the Bolshevik government.
• Germany, though temporarily weakened, soon regained strength to challenge the settlement terms and arguably was weakened less than its enemies.
• Much of France, Poland, and the Balkans suffered from occupation, while German territory remained mostly untouched.
• No enemy troops occupied German soil, leading to a belief in Germany that their armies had not been defeated.
• Returning German soldiers were welcomed as heroes, and the country quickly shifted back to peacetime production, outpacing France in steel production by 1921.
• This scenario undermined the settlement from the start, making it increasingly difficult to apply the terms fully.
• Germany, being the strongest economic power in Europe, felt resentment but was not too weak to retaliate and seek revenge.
• The peace settlement's failure lay in leaving Germany with a sense of grievance while not weakening it sufficiently.
• Criticism of the Peace Settlement is not always justified.
• Gilbert White, an American delegate, noted that given the complexities involved, it was not surprising they made a flawed peace but rather that they managed to make peace at all.
• Many historians now view the settlement as a workable compromise, possibly the best achievable under the circumstances.
• While there were mistakes, the peacemakers cannot be blamed for Hitler's rise to power or the Second World War.
• In the early 1920s, Europe, including Germany, appeared to be recovering well from the war's aftermath.
• The unfortunate turn of events was that the potential for a successful European recovery was cut short by the Great Depression and the rise of Hitler.