Old NCERT Summary (Satish Chandra): India & the World | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

Introduction

Between the eighth and eighteenth centuries, significant transformations occurred in both India and the broader global context. Europe and Asia witnessed the emergence of novel social and political structures, influencing the perspectives and lifestyles of their respective populations. These developments also left a lasting imprint on India due to its extensive trade and cultural ties with regions surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, including interactions with influential empires like the Romans and Persians.

Europe

I. Roman empire broken into two by 6th century:

• By the 6th century, the Western Roman Empire, centered around Rome, faced invasions and pressure from various Germanic and Slavic tribes, leading to its eventual collapse.
• The Western Roman Empire primarily followed Catholicism and struggled to maintain its unity amidst external threats.

• In contrast, the Eastern Roman Empire, known as the Byzantine Empire, thrived with its capital in Constantinople.
• The Byzantine Empire encompassed territories in Eastern Europe, Turkey, Syria, and North Africa, serving as a cultural and religious bridge between Greco-Roman civilization and the Arab world.
• The Greek Orthodox Church was predominant in the Byzantine Empire, influencing its cultural and religious landscape.

II. Byzantine Influence and Decline

Role of Byzantium:

• The Byzantine Empire played a significant role in mediating between Greco-Roman traditions and emerging Arab civilizations.
• Its strategic location facilitated trade and cultural exchange between East and West.

Fall of Byzantium:

• Despite its cultural and military achievements, the Byzantine Empire faced internal strife and external pressures.
• Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks in the mid-15th century, marking the end of Byzantine rule and the beginning of Ottoman dominance in the region.

III. Transition into the Dark Ages and Revival

IV. The High Middle Ages and the Prelude to the Renaissance

I. Feudal System in Europe

Dominance of Chiefs and the King:

• The most powerful elements were the chiefs who dominated large tracts of land with military power and played an important part in governance.
•  The king was effectively the most powerful feudal chief, controlling other chiefs by making them take an oath of loyalty as vassals.
• Tensions arose from time to time between the king and the vassals (fiefs). Government was thus dominated by a landed aristocracy, which was hereditary.

Key Features of Feudalism:

• Landed aristocracy held significant influence, with power often inherited within noble families.
• Serfdom and the Manor system were integral components, where peasants (serfs) were obliged to work the land and provide a portion of their produce to the landlord.
• Military organization was structured around feudal obligations, with lords responsible for raising and maintaining armed forces.

II. Serfdom and Manor System

Definition of Serfs and Manor:

• Serfs = peasants who had to compulsorily work on the land.
• Manor = the house where the landlord lived. Serfs had to cultivate the lands surrounding the manor and give a part of the produce to the landlord. 
• Landlords held authority over the manor, administering justice and enforcing law and order.

III. Evolution of Warfare and Military Organization

Impact of Cavalry and Technological Advancements:

• Cavalry gained popularity in warfare because of the iron stirrup and a new harness, which allowed the horse to pull twice the weight it could earlier.
• These inventions came to the West from East Asia and were introduced in India from the 10th century.

Decentralization of Military Power:

• As armies grew in size, kings found it increasingly challenging to manage them centrally.
• Consequently, military responsibilities were decentralized, with feudal lords assuming command over their own armed forces.
• In many cases, lords collected taxes from the peasantry, remitted tributes to the king, maintained armies, and utilized the remaining resources for personal consumption.

IV. Feudalism in India

Local Fiefs (Samantas):

• In India, local fiefs (Samantas) exercised similar powers, with the peasantry dependent upon them.

V. Role of the Catholic Church in Europe

Political and Moral Authority:

• The Catholic Church played pivotal roles in shaping both political structures and cultural life in medieval Europe.
• Through its moral authority, the Church influenced societal norms and values, guiding the conduct of rulers and subjects alike.

Social Welfare and Educational Institutions:

• Many monastic orders and denominations were established from revenue obtained from tax-free land grants by feudal chiefs and kings.
• Churches served the poor and needy, provided medical aid and shelter to travellers, and served as centres for education and learning.

The Arab World

Islam united warring Arab tribes into a powerful empire.

I. Rise of Islam and Early Conquests

Prophet Muhammad (570-632 A.D):

(a) He is the founder of Islam.
(b) He grew up in the deserts of Arabia.
(c) His first converts were the Arabs.
(d) Sind and Multan were conquered by the Arabs by 712 A.D.

II. Abbasid Empire and Its Influence

Abbasids in Baghdad:

• Abbasids came to power as Caliphs at Baghdad in middle of 8th century. Claimed to belong to same tribe as prophet Muhammad. Most powerful empire for ~150 yrs. 
• Controlled parts of North Africa, Egypt, Syria, Iran and Iraq and important trade routes connecting India and China with the Mediterranean. 
• Region attained prosperity by levying taxes on trade and due to enterprising Arab merchants.

Assimilation of Knowledge:

• Arabs assimilated scientific knowledge and administrative skills of empires they had overrun. 
• Many Chinese inventions like compass, paper, printing, gun powder reached Europe from China through Arabs

House of Wisdom (Bait-ul-hikmat):

• Established in Baghdad, translated works from various civilizations into Arabic, fostering intellectual exchange and advancement.

India did not enjoy close cultural contact with Arabs until Sindh was conquered in 8th century. 

• Decimal system reached Arabs from India after this and was popularized by Al-Khwarizmi. 
• Suryasiddhanta (Astronomy - Aryabhatta) and Charaksamhita,Sushrutsamhita were also translated.

III. Arab Invasion in India: Muhammad bin Qasim

Conquest of Sind:

• Al-Hajjajj, the Governor of Iraq sent Muhammad-bin-Qasim to India
• He Conquered Sind with the permission of Caliph Walid

Battle of Rewar

• Fought between Muhammad-bin-Qasim and Dahir the ruler of Sind
• Dahir was defeated. Sind and Multan was captured.
• Muhammad-bin-Qasim called Multan as "City of Gold".

Administrative System

• Sind and Multan were divided into number of Iqtas or districts by Muhammad-bin-Qasim and Arab military officers headed the Iqtas.
• The sub-divisions of the districts were administered by the local Hindu Officers.
• Jizya was imposed on non-Muslims.

Muhammad bin Qasim's Army

• 25,000 troops with 6000 Camels, 6000 Syrian horses, 3000 Bactrian Camels and an artillery force with 2000 men, advanced guards, and five catapults.

(v) End of Muhammad-bin-Qasim

• Caliph Walid was succeeded by Caliph Sulaiman.
• He was an enemy of Al-Hajjaj, the Governor of Iraq.
• Muhammad-bin Qasim was the son-in-law of Al-Hajjaj, so he dismissed him and sent to Mesopotamia as a prisoner where he was tortured to death. 
• For more than 150 years, Sind and Multan continued to remain as the part of the Caliph's Empire.

(vi) Rani Bai's heroic defense against Muhammad bin Qasim

• The wife of Dahir and the other women of Sind put up a heroic defense within the Fort of Rewar.

IV. Legacy and Impact

• Arab conquest paved the way for Islam's penetration into India.

Effects of Arab Conquest

• The subjugation of Sind made way for Islam into India.
• The art of administration, astronomy, music, painting, medicine and architecture were learnt by Arabs from our land and they spread astronomy, Indian Philosophy, and numerals to Europe.

Indian Impact

• Brahma Siddhanta- a Sanskrit work of Brahmagupta was translated into Arabic in which the names of Indian Scientists like Sindbad, Bhala, Manaka are mentioned.
  In a hospital at Baghdad, Dhana was appointed as a chief Medical officer.
• A serious disease of Caliph Harun-al-Rashid was cured by physician Manaka.
• Europe stagnated due to rigid Catholic Church doctrines. India also did not progress much. Arab science declined after the 14th century due to growing orthodoxy and political changes.

East and South East Asia