Old NCERT Summary (Satish Chandra): Economic and Social Life | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

Trade and Commerce

 Early Medieval India (800-1200 CE) witnessed significant changes in trade and commerce, shifting from a period of stagnation to vibrant activity.Early Medieval India (800-1200 CE)

Period of stagnation and decline earlier

• Trade decline = decline of towns and cities.
• Disintegration of roman empire and of the old Sassanid empire after rise of Islam and disruption of overland trade.
• China became the focus of trade after decline of roman empire. Spices from SE asia, ivory from Africa, glassware from west asia, medicinal herbs, lac, incense etc. Were traded.
• Due to India's monsoon climate, ships had to wait for long periods to travel directly from Africa to China.
• So, India, and chiefly Malabar port - became an important staging centre for goods from Africa, China and SE Asia. Famous Chinese port = Canton (Kanfu).
• Due to less population of north India, there was a gradual decline of internal trade too and led to languishing of trade guilds (shrenis and sanghas). Guilds = people belonging to different castes, having own rules of conduct which they were legally bound to obey, entitled to lend or borrow money or receive endowments. After some time, some older shrenis emerged as sub-castes (eg. Dvadasa-shreni).

Revival and Expansion of Maritime Trade

• Arab Empire’s emergence (7th century onward) revitalised trade between India, West Asia, and Southeast Asia.
• From the 10th century, rising demand for Indian spices led to renewed global trade.
• Regions benefitted: Malwa, Gujarat, Bengal, and South India.
• Ports like Malabar, Tamralipti (Bengal), and Gujarat became major hubs for staging goods due to monsoon wind patterns.
• Direct sailing between Africa and China was not feasible; ships had to halt at Indian ports.

India’s Role in Global Trade

• India emerged as a key player in global trade, with China becoming a major destination for Indian goods.
• Indian merchants, organized into guilds like Manigramam and Nandesi, played a crucial role in trade with Southeast Asia.
• Ports like Tamralipti (Tamluk) served as chief ports for voyages to Java and Malaya.

Cultural exchanges included:

• Temples: Borobudur (Java), Angkor Wat (Cambodia).
• Mentions of Southeast Asian languages and dress in Harisena’s Brihatkatha-kosh.
• Japanese records credit two Indians with introducing cotton to Japan.

Shipbuilding and Naval Expeditions

• Indian ships initially dominated Indian Ocean trade, made of Malabar, Bengal, and Burma teak.
• Many shipyards existed, including in Gujarat.
• Chola ruler Rajendra I:
  • Launched naval expeditions to secure trade routes in Southeast Asia.
  • Sent embassies to China via Indian ships.
• Over time, Chinese ships became superior:
  • Used mariner’s compass.
  • Larger size, faster, and could carry 600 passengers + 400 soldiers.

Impact of Trade

• Trade with Western Asia declined, but trade with Southeast Asia and China grew steadily.
• Led to prosperity in Gujarat, Bengal, and South India.
• Indian technique of irrigated rice cultivation contributed to material prosperity in Southeast Asia.
• By the 13th century, China tried to restrict gold and silver exports due to heavy outflows via trade.

Condition of the People

• No decline in handicrafts and agriculture and metallurgy.
• Feudal chiefs assumed large titles like mahasamantadhipati.
• Big merchants also aped feudal chiefs and kings in splendour. Millionaire = kotisvara.
• There were many poor people, however. Many poor resorted to robbery and plunder.
• Revenue from peasants = l/6th of produce; but there were many other additional taxes and cesses.
• They also had to undergo forced labour = vishti.
• Crops, granaries and homes were frequent in times of war and increased the burden on the common man.
• In certain areas, peasants and artisans were tied to the land like serfs, especially where entire villages were granted to Brahmins.
• Wars and famines were frequent; they led to village burnings, looting of cattle, destruction of granaries and water tanks.
• Exploitation was extreme—some chiefs even extracted money from pig dung, dead birds, and shrouds of corpses.

Caste system

The caste system continued to be the fundamental structure of society during this period.

(a) Brahmans and Rajputs

• Caste system remained the basis of society.
• Brahmans gained prominence — received land grants, took roles in administration, education, and military.
• Smritis exalted Brahmans as the only true "dvija"; some claimed Kshatriyas had vanished and Vaishyas degraded.
• Rajputs emerged as a new caste; linked to solar/lunar dynasties but likely descended from tribes and foreigners (Hunas, Shakas).
• Many non-caste rulers were assimilated as Rajputs (Kshatriyas) — a process called Rajputization.
• Brahman-Rajput alliance promoted temple-building and land endowments.
• Castes weren’t rigid: Kayasthas emerged as a caste from palace officials of mixed origins.
• Many Jains, Buddhists, tribes, and foreigners were Hinduized, creating new castes and sub-castes.

(b) Shudras, Dalits and Slaves

• Disabilities of lower castes increased; inter-caste marriages were frowned upon (anulom vs pratilom).
• Professions became jatis; artisans and tribals seen as untouchables.
• Shudras improved slightly — allowed in rituals but excluded from Vedic learning.
• Some tribes like Jats, originally pastoralists, became Shudra agriculturists and claimed parity with Rajputs.
• Dalits (antyajas) faced worsening status — forced to live outside villages, barred from land ownership.
• Chandals had to announce their presence; even their shadows were considered polluting.
• Slavery existed via war, debt, or famine; slaves treated better than Dalits and could earn freedom.
• Emancipation of slaves was encouraged; female slaves bearing children to masters were freed.

Women

• Considered mentally inferior.
• Meant to obey husbands blindly. Matsya Purana authorizes husband to beat wife.
• Were not allowed to study Vedas. Marriageable age reduced to between 6 and 12-13, destroying scope for education.
• Remarriage was allowed, but rarely (e.g., if the husband was missing, dead, became a recluse, impotent, or an outcaste). Women were generally distrusted and kept in seclusion. Their lives were controlled by male relatives (father, husband, son).
• Women, including widows, were given wider property rights. Growth of feudal society strengthened the concept of private property.
• Sati was practiced in some places.Sati System 
• Upper-class women lived in seclusion but purdah (veiling) was not practiced. Arab travelers noted that royal women appeared unveiled in public courts.
• Some royal women held political power: e.g., Prabhavati Gupta (Vakataka dynasty) and Queen Didda (Kashmir) ruled in their own right.
• Court ladies, queens’ maids, and even daughters of officials/courtesans were skilled in Sanskrit, poetry, music, and fine arts.
• Ordinary women likely worked hard alongside men, managing both household and labor, but little direct evidence survives about their lives.

Dress, Food and Amusements

Dress & Ornaments

• No major change in clothing styles:
  • Men: Dhoti, jackets in North India, long coats, trousers (upper class).
  • Women: Sari, Choli (bodice), with variations across regions.
• Cotton was most common; upper classes used silk and fine muslin.
• In Kashmir, royal dress included long coats (introduced by Harsha).
• In southern regions like Malabar and Quilon, men and women wore only loincloths — even kings wore minimal clothing.
• Jewellery and ornaments were widely used by both men and women:
  • Gold bracelets, earrings with precious stones.
  • Kings of south India wore heavy gold, pearls, and gem-studded ornaments.
  • Gujarat: double earrings, tight clothing, red shoes (Chau Ju Kua).

Food Habits

• Vegetarianism was common in many regions and communities.
• However, meat consumption was allowed on specific occasions — animals like peacocks, wild pigs, wild cocks, horses were considered lawful to eat.
• Alcohol:
  • Arab travelers praised Indians for avoiding intoxicants — but this was idealized.
  • Literary works mention wine-drinking by men and women, especially during festivals and feasts.
  • Some Smritis allowed wine to Kshatriyas and Vaishyas but banned it for Brahmans.

Amusements & Pastimes

• People were fun-loving, especially in towns.
• Popular activities:
  • Fairs and festivals
  • Excursions to gardens, swimming parties, picnics
• Animal fights (rams, cocks), wrestling matches among common people
• Upper classes enjoyed:
  • Dicing (gambling)
  • Hunting
  • Indian Polo (a royal pastime)

Education and Science

• Mass education did not exist. People learnt what was necessary.
• Reading and writing was confined to upper classes  particularly Kayasthas.. Temples made arrangements for higher level education.
• Main responsibility to provide education = respective guilds or families. Branches of Vedas and grammar were studied.
• More formal education with emphasis on secular subjects provided in Buddhist monasteries. Nalanda, Vikramshila and Uddandapura in Bihar were famous.
  • Kayasthas had their own system for learning administration and accountancy.
  • Buddhist viharas (like Nalanda, Vikramshila, Uddandapura in Bihar) offered formal, secular education.  These received lavish royal grants and attracted international students (e.g. from Tibet).
• Kashmir was another important centre. Shaiva sects flourished there.
• Matths (Madurai and Sringeri) were set up in South India.
• Science declined. Surgery did not advance because dissection was considered the job for lower varnas.
• Astronomy declined, replaced by astrology in popularity.
• Some progress in:
  • Mathematics: Lilawati by Bhaskaracharya II remained a standard text.
  • Medicine: Use of mercury and books on plants & animal treatment.
• Medicine advanced a little but no method for breeding fine horses was found, leaving India dependent on central asia.
• Reasons for decline in science: Society stagnated, narrower world view, increasing orthodoxy, setback to urban life, insular nature of Indians.
• Al-biruni describes Brahmins of that time as haughty, conceited, foolish and vain.

Religious movements

• Revival and expansion of Hinduism and continued decline of Jainism and Buddhism.
• Shiv and Vishnu became popular and others became subordinate.
• Religion played a positive role in the age of disintegration. Outbreaks of violence and forcible occupation at Buddhist and Jain temples.
• Buddhism confined to eastern India. Mahayan school rose and adopted elaborate rituals and mantras etc., making it indistinguishable from Hinduism.
• Jainism was popular. Most magnificent temples built during 9th and 10th centuries. High watermark for Jainism in south india. Later, growing rigidity and loss of royal patronage led to decline. Dilwara temple at Mt Abu, Jainalayas as resting places for travellers, basadis (temples) and mahastambhs.
• Revival also increased power and arrogance of brahmanas, resulting in popular vedic worship movements such as: Gorakhnath - Nathpanthis - Tantra and tantrism -open to all, many followers of lower castes. - in north India
• Bhakti movements in south India - Nayanars and Alvars.
• Lingayat or Vir Shaiva movement (12th cent) - Basava and Channabasava who lived in court of Kalachuri kings of K'taka - reformist, opposed castes and child marriage and fasts and sacrifices etc, allowed widow remarriage.
• Intellectual movements challenging Jainism and Buddhism also emerged during this period.
• Sankara(9th cent) - Vedanta philosophy (advaitavad/non-dualism)
  • A Hindu revivalist movement giving a new placement to Hinduism was started by Sankara.
  • Kaladi in Kerala is his birthplace.
  • His doctrine of Monoism or Advaita was too abstract to appeal to the common people.
  • The Advaita Concept of Nirgunabrahman (God without attributes) received contradictory reaction with the emergence of the idea of Sagunabrahman (God with attributes).
• Ramanuj (11th cent) - bhakti + Vedanta - qualified dualism
  • He was born at Sriperumbudur near modern Chennai.
  • He preached Visishtadvaita in thel2th century.
  • According to him, God is Sagunabrahman.
  • He encouraged Prabattimarga or path of self-surrender to God.
  • He invited the downtrodden to Vaishnavism.
• Madhvacharya (Dualism/Tattvavaad)
  • Madhava is from Kannada region whose preaching prevailed in the 13th
  • He spread Deviator dualism of Jivatma and Paramatma.
  • His philosophy was that the world is not an illusion but a reality. God, soul, matter is unique in nature.
• Ramananda, Nimbarka Vallabhacharya were also other preachers of Vaishnavite Bhakti in the Telangana region
  Bhakti became acceptable to all sections by early 16th century