History, Art & Culture: May 2022 Current Affairs - UPSC PDF Download

1. Excavations of Iron in Tamil Nadu

Why in News?

• Recent carbon dating of excavated finds in Tamil Nadu pushes evidence of iron being used in India back to 4,200 years ago.
  • Before this, the earliest evidence of iron use was from 1900-2000 BCE for the country, and from 1500 BCE for Tamil Nadu.
  • The latest evidence dates the findings from Tamil Nadu to 2172 BCE.

What are the Findings?

• The excavations are from Mayiladumparai near Krishnagiri in Tamil Nadu.
• Mayiladumparai is an important site with cultural material dating back between the Microlithic (30,000 BCE) and Early Historic (600 BCE) ages.
• Among the other important findings is evidence that the late Neolithic phase in Tamil Nadu has been identified to have begun before 2200 BCE, based on a cultural deposit of 25 cm below the dated level.
• Archaeologists also found that black and red ware pottery was introduced in the late Neolithic phase itself, rather than the widely held belief that this occurred in the Iron Age.

What is the Historical Significance?

1. Production of Agricultural Tools

• Invention of iron technology led to the production of agricultural tools and weapons, leading to production required for a civilisation ahead of economic and cultural progress. There is no known record of iron being used in the Indus Valley, where copper was first utilized by Indians (1500 BCE).

2. Useful in Deforestation

• Deforestation occurred only after humans began using iron tools to clear dense forests and bring land into agriculture, because copper tools would have been difficult to use to clear dense forests and bring land into agriculture.

3. Socio-economic Changes

• With the latest evidence tracing our Iron Age to 2000 BCE from 1500 BC, it can be assumed that the cultural seeds were laid in 2000 BCE.
• Around 600 BCE, iron technology led to massive production triggered by socio-economic changes the Tamil Brahmi script.

The Tamil Brahmi scripts were once believed to have originated around 300 BCE, until a landmark finding in 2019 pushed the date back to 600 BCE. This dating narrowed the gap between the Indus Valley civilisation and Tamilagam/South India’s Sangam Age. 

To read more information on this topic:

• Political & Social Condition during Vedic Period
• Religion & Economic Condition: The Vedic Period

2. Raja Ravi Varma (1848-1906) 

About Raja Ravi Varma

• He was born at Kilimanoor in Kerala in 1848.
• He learnt watercolour painting from the royal painter Ramaswamy Naidu, and later trained in oil painting from Dutch artist Theodore Jensen
• He specialised in Oil and water paintings. He focused on realised expression and skin tone.
• Varma combined European realism with Indian sensibilities.
• He was inspired from Indian literature, mythology and dance drama.
• He got three gold medals at the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893.
• He opened a Lithographic Press in Bombay in 1894 to take his art to masses. His lithographs increased the involvement of common people with fine arts and defined artistic tastes among common people.
• Important work: Shakuntala; Nair Lady Adorning Her Hair; There Comes Papa; Galaxy of Musicians; Damayanti talking with a swan and Maharaj Shivaji
• 2014 Indian Hindi-language film, Rang Rasiya (English title: Colours of Passion) explores Varma's inspiration behind his paintings.

To read more information on this topic:

• Spectrum Summary: General Features of Socio-Religious Reform Movements
• Spectrum Summary: General Survey of Socio-Cultural Reform Movements

3. Lingaraja Temple

About Lingaraja Temple

• It is a Shaivite temple of Kalinga style.
• It is the oldest temple of Bhubaneswar, Odisha.
• Built by King Jajati Keshari in 10th Century and completed by King Lalatendu Keshari in 11th Century.
• Bhubaneswar is called the Ekamra Kshetra as the deity of Lingaraja was originally under a mango tree (Ekamra) as noted in Ekamra Purana, a 13thcentury Sanskrit treatise.
• Lingaraja temple is maintained by the Temple Trust Board and Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
• The harmony between the two sects of Hinduism, Shaivism, and Vaishnavism, is seen in this temple where the deity is worshipped as Harihara, a combined form of Vishnu and Shiva.
• One of the finest examples of purely Hindu Temple in India” by noted critic and historian James Fergusson (1808-1886).
• Temple marks the culmination of the temple architecture in Bhubaneswar which was the cradle of the Kalinga School of Temple Architecture. The sprawling temple complex has one hundred and fifty subsidiary shrines.
• Temple can broadly be divided into four main halls. Garba Griha (Sanctum Sanctorum), Yajana Mandapa (the hall for prayers), Natya Mandapa (dance and music hall) and Bhoga Mandapa (where devotees can have the Prasad (offering) of the Lord).
• The other attraction of the temple is the Bindusagar Lake, located in the north side of the temple
• Festivals associated are Shivaratri and Ashokastami. 

About Kalinga Temple Architecture Style

• An inscription in the Amrtesvara Temple at Holal in Karnataka refers to four temple styles, Nagara, Kalinga, Dravida and Vesara. This inscription is dated to 1231 CE and belongs to the reign of the Seuna king Singhana.
• Kalinga style is identified as a sub-class under the Nagara category.
• As the name suggests, this temple style was mostly confined within the then Kalinga region, present Odisha.
• N K Bose’s “Canons of Orissan Architecture” was a milestone in understanding the Kalinga temple architecture.
• Silpaprakasha (written by Ramachandra Kaulachara in 10th-11th century CE) contains guidelines on Kalinga temple construction.
• Each temple has two sections, one describing the construction and decoration of jagamohana (praying hall) and garbha-grha (sanctuary).
• Other structures included nata-mandira (dance hall) and bhoga-mandira (kitchen).

Structural forms

• Kalinga temple style is broadly classified into three main categories, namely Rekha, Pidha and Khakhara.
• Rekha-deul (temple) is distinguished with its square plan topped with a curvilinear tower.
• Pidha-deul, also referred as Bhadra deul, also has a square plan topped with a pyramidal tower composed of horizontal tiers arranged in receding manner. 
• Khakhara deul is surmounted with a barrel-shaped (vault-shape) tower over a rectangular plan. Usually,these temples are dedicated to a form of Devi. (Note: Most of the Kalinga temples fall under the Rekha category.) 

Pitha is the platform over which the entire structure of the temple stands. It was not a mandatory part of a temple and many temples, early as well as late, do not have pitha in their plan.

• Bada is the vertical wall over which tower is supported.
• Gandi is the lower part of the tower.
• Mastaka is the upper part of the tower.
• Pabhaga is consisted of a set of mouldings. Early period temples used to have three mouldings at pabhaga which later increased to four and five in the later period temples. 
• Jangha is the main and the largest portion of the bada. It is portion where most of the images of subsidiary deities are placed.
• Baranda is composed of a set of mouldings, varying from seven to ten, connecting the bada to the gandi. In later period temples, the jangha portion got divided into two storeys, tala-jangha and upara-jangha, separated by a madhya-bandhana. 

To read more information on this topic:

• Nitin Singhania's Summary: Indian Architecture, Sculpture & Pottery- 1
• Nitin Singhania's Summary: Indian Architecture, Sculpture & Pottery - 2

4. Deoghar Baidyanath Jyotirlinga

About Deoghar Jyotirlinga

• It is one of the twelve Jyotirlings. Jyotirlingas are holiest sites of Shaivism.
• They are often connected by mythological stories with Lord Shiva.
• Deoghar Jyotirlinga is a place known for healing of Ravana by Lord Shiva. Hence, Lord Shiva was called Vaidya/Baidya.
• This place is also known as one of the Shaktipeeth.
• It was praised by Adi Shankara.
• Annual pilgramage known as Kanwar yatra is organised.
• Mughal emperor Akbar’s brother-in-law built a pond at Deoghar known as Mansarovar.
• The main temple has a pyramidal tower with three gold vessels set compactly. These were gifted by the Maharaja of Giddhaur, Raja Puran Singh. There are also five knives in a trident shape (Punchsula) as well as a lotus jewel with eight petals called Chandrakanta Mani.
• Along with the main temple of Baba Baidyanath, there are also 21 other temples. Some of the shrines you will find here are for Parvati, Ganesha, Brahma, Kalabhairav, Hanuman, Saraswati, Surya, RamLakshman-Janaki, Ganga, Kali, Annapurna, and Lakshmi-Narayan. The Maa Parvati temple is tied to the Shiva temple with red sacred threads.

Other Eleven Jyotirlingas in India

1. Somnath - Gujarat
2. Mallikarjuna - Andhra Pradesh
3. Mahakaleshwar - Madhya Pradesh
4. Omkareshwar - Madhya Pradesh
5. Kedarnath - Himalayas
6. Bhimashankar - Maharashtra
7. Vishveshwar/Vishwanath - Uttar Pradesh
8. Triambakeshwar - Maharashtra
9. Nageshwar - Gujarat
10. Rameshwaram - Tamil Nadu
11. Ghrishneshwar – Maharashtra

To read more information on this topic:

• Nitin Singhania's Summary: Indian Architecture, Sculpture & Pottery - 2
• Nitin Singhania's Summary: Indian Architecture, Sculpture & Pottery - 3

5. Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar

About B. R. Ambedkar

• Chairman of the Drafting Committee of the Constituent Assembly and was a scholar par excellence, a jurist, an idealistic, an emancipator and real nationalist. Belonged to Mahar community of Mhow (MP).
• First to get Ph.D in Economics from London.

Socio-Politico Agenda

• He was against the caste-based discriminations and untouchability in society.
• He condemned Hindu scriptures that he thought propagated caste discrimination.
• Part of Bombay Presidency Committee that worked with the Simon Commission in 1928.
• Established the ‘Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha’ to promote education and socio-economic improvements among the Dalits.
• Magazines like Mooknayak, and Bahishkrit Bharat.
• Advocated separate electorates for the ‘Depressed Classes’.
• In 1927, he organised Mahar Satyagraha.
• In 1930, Ambedkar launched the Kalaram Temple movement.
• Founded the Independent Labour Party (later transformed into the Scheduled Castes Federation) in 1936.
• Considered the Right to Constitutional Remedy as the soul of the Constitution.
• As Law minister fought vigorously for the passage of the Hindu Code Bill. 
• In 1956, he converted to Buddhism, spreading Buddhist ideals.

Economic Views

• He advocated a free economy with a stable Rupee.
• He also mooted birth control for economic development (Demand-scarcity argument).

To read more information on this topic:

• Spectrum Summary: Emergence of Swarajists, Socialist Ideas, Revolutionary Activities & New Forces
• Spectrum Summary: Civil Disobedience Movement & Round Table Conferences

6. Anang Tal Lake

• The Ministry of Culture recently asked the Delhi Development Authority (DDA), to restore the historic Anang Tal lake in Mehrauli in South Delhi. It is believed to have been created by Tomar King, Anangpal II, in 1,060 AD.
• Moreover, the proposal to declare Anang Tal as a national monument is also under consideration.

Anangpal II

• Anangpal II, popularly known as Anangpal Tomar, belonged to the Tomar dynasty that ruled parts of present-day Delhi and Haryana between the 8th and 12th centuries.
• The most reliable evidence about the early history of Delhi is inscribed on the iron pillar of Masjid Quwaatul Islam, adjacent to the Qutab Minar.
• According to this inscription, Anangpal of the Tomar Rajputs founded Delhi between 1053 and 1109 AD.
• Anangpal II built Lal Kot fort (also known as Qila Rai Pithora) and Anang Tal Baoli.
• Anangpal Tomar II was succeeded by his grandson Prithviraj Chauhan.
• The Delhi Sultanate was established in 1192 after Prithviraj Chauhan’s defeat in the Battle of Tarain (present-day Haryana) by the Ghurid forces.

7. Kanheri Caves

• The Ministry of Culture recently inaugurated various amenities at the Kanheri Caves on the occasion of Buddha Purnima.
• The Kanheri caves comprise more than 110 different rock-cut monolithic excavations and is one of the largest single excavations in the country.
• The name Kanheri is derived from Kanhagiri in Prakrit (which means black mountain) and occurs in the Nasik inscription of the Satavahana ruler Vasisthiputra Pulumavi.
• Named after its black basaltic stone, it is located in the forests of Sanjay Gandhi National Park in Mumbai.
• The earliest reference of Kanheri is ascribed to Fa-Hein who visited India during 399-411 CE.
• Kanheri consists of excavations primarily undertaken during the Hinayana phase but also has several examples of the Mahayana stylistic architecture as well as few printings of the Vajrayana order.
• It is the only centre where a continuous progression of Buddhist faith and architecture is observed from 2nd century CE to 9th century CE.
• Kanheri flourished under the patronage of Satavahana, Traikutakas, Vakatakas and Silaharas and through donations made by the wealthy merchants of the region.
• Kanheri thrived for nearly a millennium due to its proximity to the ancient port towns of Sopara (Nalasopara – known for its trading ties with Mesopotamia and Egypt), Kalyan, Thane and Bassein (Vasai).
• The scale and extent of excavations, with its numerous water cisterns, epigraphs, one of the oldest dams, a stupa burial gallery and excellent rainwater harvesting system, indicate its popularity as a monastic and pilgrim centre.
• The architectural and engineering excellence of heritage sites like Kanheri caves signifies the knowledge about art, engineering, management and construction back then

To read more information on this topic:

• Formation of New States & Expansion in Peninsula

8. The Ministry of Culture recently held the inaugural ceremony to commemorate the year-long celebration of the 250th birth anniversary of Raja Ram Mohan Roy.

• Raja Ram Mohan Roy is considered as the Father of modern Indian Renaissance for the remarkable reforms he brought in the 18th and 19th century India. He was given the title of ‘Raja’ by Mughal Emperor Akbar II in 1831.
• Among his efforts, abolition of the inhuman practice of Sati was the most prominent. His efforts were also instrumental in eradicating the purdah system and child marriage. He also demanded property inheritance rights for women.

Contributions in the field of Education

• He was a great scholar of Sanskrit, Persian and English languages and also knew Arabic, Latin and Greek.
• He advocated the introduction of an English Education System in the country teaching scientific subjects like Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry and even Botany.
• He paved the way for revolutionizing education system in India by establishing Hindu College in 1817 along with David Hare, which later went on to become one of the best educational institutions in the country.
• In order to combine theological doctrines along with modern rational lessons he established the Anglo Vedic School in 1822 followed by the Vedanta College in 1826.

Religious Contributions

• Ram Mohan Roy was against unnecessary ceremonialism and the idolatry advocate by priests.
• He had studied religious scriptures of different religions and advocated that Hindu Scriptures like Upanishads upheld the concept of monotheism.
• He founded the Atmiya Sabha in 1928, which later reorganized itself into the Brahma Sabha, a precursor organisation of the Brahmo Samaj. It propagated monotheism, independence from the scriptures and renouncing the caste system.
• With time, the Brahmo Samaj became a strong progressive force to drive social reforms in Bengal, especially women education.

Journalistic Contributions

• Ram Mohan Roy was a strong supporter of free speech and expression. He fought for the rights of vernacular press.
• He also brought out a newspaper in Persian called Mirat-ul- Akhbar (the Mirror of News) and a Bengali weekly called Sambad Kaumudi (the Moon of Intelligence).
• In those days, items of news and articles had to be approved by the Government before being published.
• Ram Mohan protested against this control by arguing that newspapers should be free and that the truth should not be suppressed.
• His 'Gaudiya Byakaran' in Bengali is one of his best prose works.

9. Iron Excavations From Tamil Nadu

• Carbon dating of deposits found during archaeological excavations in Tamil Nadu has pushed the evidence of iron being used in India to 4,200 years ago.
• The excavations are from Mayiladumparai near Krishnagiri in Tamil Nadu, about 100 km south of Bengaluru.
• Before this, the earliest evidence of iron use was from 1900-2000 BCE for the country (Malhar near Varanasi and Brahmagiri in North Karnataka), and from 1500 BCE for Tamil Nadu. The latest evidence dates the findings from Tamil Nadu to 2172 BCE.
• Among other important findings is evidence that the late Neolithic phase in Tamil Nadu has been identified to have begun before 2200 BCE.
• Archaeologists also found that black and red ware pottery was introduced in the late Neolithic phase itself,rather than the widely held belief that this occurred in the Iron Age.

Significance

• Iron is not known to have been used in the Indus Valley, from where the use of copper in India is said to have originated (1500 BCE). But non-availability of copper for technological and mass exploitation forced other regions to remain in the Stone Age.
• When iron technology was invented, it led to the production of agricultural tools and weapons, leading to production required for a civilisation ahead of economic and cultural progress.
• While useful tools were made out of copper, these were brittle and not as strong as iron tools would be.
• As it would have been difficult to use copper tools to clear dense forests and bring land under agriculture, it is inferred that deforestation took place only after humans began using iron.
• With the latest evidence tracing the country’s Iron Age to 2000 BCE, it can be assumed that the India’s cultural seeds were laid in 2000 BCE.
• The benefit of socio-economic changes and massive production triggered by the iron technology gave its first fruit around 600 BCE — the Tamil Brahmi scripts.
• The Tamil Brahmi scripts were once believed to have originated around 300 BCE, until a landmark finding in 2019 pushed the date back to 600 BCE.
• This dating narrowed the gap between the Indus Valley civilisation and Tamilagam/South India’s Sangam Age.