Muhammad Tughluq: Major Projects, Agrarian Measures, Bureaucracy of Muhammad Tughluq | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

After the death of Alauddin Khalji:

• The powerful noble Malik Kafur placed Alauddin's young son on the throne but took all the real power for himself.
• Kafur was removed from power after just one month, and another son of Alauddin, Mubarak Khalji, became the ruler.

Mubarak Khalji's Reign:

• To gain favor with the people, Mubarak Khalji repealed all of Alauddin's strict agricultural and market regulations.

Khusrau Malik's Assassination of Mubarak:

• Khusrau Malik, a converted Muslim, killed Mubarak Khalji and took the throne himself in 1320, marking the end of the Khalji dynasty.

Rise of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq:

• Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, of Turkish origin and the warden against Mongol invasions, led a rebellion and founded the Tughlaq dynasty.

Problems and Approaches 

Policy of Annexation:

• Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq and his son, Muhammad bin Tughlaq, rejected Alauddin's policy of non-annexation of distant states. They aimed to bring all territories under their direct control.
• Barani describes both rulers as highly ambitious, with Muhammad bin Tughlaq determined to make every part of India subordinate to him.
• During their reign, direct control from Delhi was extended to regions such as Warangal(Telangana),Mabar(Coromondal),Madurai(Tamil Nadu), and Dvar Samudra(Karnataka), reaching the southern tip of India.
• When annexing a territory, Muhammad Tughlaq would appoint revenue officials to assess it. The accounts of these distant provinces were audited in the office of the wazir, similar to the detailed scrutiny of villages and towns in the doab.
• This rapid expansion and high degree of centralization had drawbacks, which Muhammad Tughlaq would later realize.

Welfare of People:

• Barani and contemporary historians were concerned with the welfare of the people and the relationship between state and religion.
• Barani praises Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq for his concern for the welfare of the people and his policy of moderation, avoiding excessive taxation that could ruin the country.
• There was a recognition of the importance of agriculture and handicrafts, as well as the need to expand cultivation.
• Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq sought to revive the welfare and humanitarianism policy of Jalaluddin Khalji, extending mildness and generosity to the noble families of Alauddin and his son, Kaiqubad.
• Post and iqta were given to these families, and those who had received large sums as gifts from the previous regime were called to audit and return the excess amounts.

Relationship between state and religion

Regarding the question of the relationship between state and religion, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, though a strict Muslim in his observance of religious practices, did not accept the narrow interpretation of the shara regarding the humiliation and impoverishment of the Hindus advocated by some theologians.

• Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, despite being a devout Muslim, rejected the rigid interpretation of Islamic law that called for the humiliation and impoverishment of Hindus.

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq:

• He was strict in following religious practices such as prayers and fasting.

Barani's Criticism:

• Barani criticized Muhammad bin Tughlaq for being a "rationalist," implying that he only accepted things based on logical proof.

Barani's Accusation:

• Barani accused Muhammad bin Tughlaq of trying to merge the spiritual authority of prophethood with political power (sultanat).

Muhammad Tughlaq's Spiritual Authority:

• This accusation was unfounded, as Muhammad Tughlaq simply rejected the spiritual authority of certain theologians and mystics.

Mysticism and Sufi Saints:

• Although Muhammad Tughlaq did not believe in mysticism, he showed respect for Sufi saints.
• He was the first sultan to visit the tomb of Muinuddin Chishti in Ajmer.
• He also constructed mausoleums over the tombs of several Sufi saints, including Nizamuddin Auliya in Delhi.

Open-Mindedness:

• Muhammad Tughlaq was open-minded and associated with various spiritual figures, including jogis and Jain saints like Raj Shekhar and Jinaprabha Suri.
• While in Gujarat, he visited Jain temples and granted them donations.
• He also participated in Hindu festivals, such as Holi.

Barani's Criticism of Character:

• Barani's criticism of Muhammad Tughlaq’s character flaws should not be ignored.
• He was accused of being impulsive and overly reliant on his own judgment without considering others' advice.
• As a result, many of his innovations were poorly thought out or implemented without sufficient preparation.

Excessive Rewards and Punishments:

• Barani and the Moroccan traveler Ibn Battutah criticized Muhammad Tughlaq for giving excessive rewards and punishments.
• They also accused him of appointing individuals of low birth to high positions.

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq 

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq's Reign and Death (1320-1325):

• Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq ruled for a short period until his death in 1325.
• After organizing the administration, he sent his son, Ulugh Khan (later known as Muhammad Tughlaq), to restore imperial authority in Warangal. Ulugh Khan returned with substantial loot.
• Ghiyasuddin also dispatched a noble to suppress a rebellion in Gujarat.
• He personally led a campaign in Bengal to bring it under control.
• Upon his successful return, a pavilion built by Ulugh Khan to honor him collapsed, resulting in Ghiyasuddin's death.
• While initially deemed an accident, historical records suggest that Ulugh Khan orchestrated the incident to kill his father.
• Following Ghiyasuddin's death, Ulugh Khan ascended the throne in 1325.

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq 

Nature of Kingship:

• Highly autocratic and despotic.
• Separation of state and religion, with a focus on political considerations and state interests.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq even replaced the name of the Abbasid caliph on his coins.
• Later, he received a formal rescript (nianshur) from the Caliph, but this did little to change the attitude of the orthodox elements towards him.
• Negation of Ulemas.
• Had higher imperial ambitions than Alauddin, and under his rule, the territory of the sultanate reached its peak.
• Adopted a catholic approach to religions.
• First Sultan to participate in the festival of Holi.
• First to employ Hindus in high offices.
• First to include Sufis in the nobility and enter into matrimonial alliances with Sufis.
• Created a composite nobility, including individuals of very low status based on talent, such as cooks and gardeners.
• Had a highly innovative approach, implementing measures like the second capital in Daulatabad, token currency, agricultural experiments, and foreign campaigns.

Major projects and agrarian measures: (His Experiments and Reforms) 

Muhammad bin Tughlaq's Reforms:

• Muhammad bin Tughlaq aimed to improve and standardize the administration.
• He issued numerous orders, known as manshurs, to implement these changes.
• However, only a few of these orders were taken seriously or had a significant impact.
• Historian Barani categorized these effective measures into two groups:
• Administrative and political measures
• Economic and agrarian reforms

Administrative and Political Measures 

Exodus to Deogiri:

• One of the most controversial actions taken by Muhammad bin Tughluq early in his reign was his decision to transfer the capital from Delhi to Deogiri, which he renamed Daultabad. This move involved the mass relocation of people from Delhi to the new capital.
• Tughluq aimed to establish a second capital in the south for better control over the region.
• The Sultan offered to purchase the homes of those who migrated from Delhi and provided liberal grants to facilitate their relocation. Free boarding and lodging were also offered to migrants upon their arrival in Daultabad.
• Despite these efforts, many migrants were unhappy with the move. Most had been accustomed to life in Delhi, where their families had lived for generations and considered it their home.
• The situation was further exacerbated by an outbreak of bubonic plague and ongoing rebellions, leading to the loss of many soldiers.
• Ultimately, the exodus to Daultabad proved to be a costly failure, causing great misery for many people. However, its impact was felt mainly by the upper classes, not by the general populace of Delhi.

Expeditions to North-West and North:

• After Alauddin's expedition to Multan, there was little focus on the north-west frontier until Muhammad Tughluq (previously known as Ulugh Khan) became Sultan. He shifted attention back to this region.

Led campaigns to Kalanaur and Peshawar:

• These campaigns were likely a response to the Mongol invasion led by Tarmashirin Khan in 1326-27, aiming to secure the north-western frontier against future Mongol attacks.
• While the Sultan stayed in Lahore, the army successfully conquered Kalanaur and Peshawar, establishing administrative arrangements there.

Qarachil region (modern Kulu in Kangra district of Himachal Pradesh) in 1332:

• This expedition was part of a plan to strengthen the north and north-west frontier.
• A large army was enlisted under Khusrau Malik's command to occupy Jidya, an important location in the Qarachil region.
• However, Khusrau Malik overstepped his orders and advanced towards Tibet. The army faced disease and panic due to heavy rains, and only a few soldiers returned to report the disaster.
• The Qarachil expedition resulted in significant resource wastage and diminished Muhammad Tughluq's authority.

An ambitious project for Khurasan:

• Before the Qarachil expedition, Tughluq initiated an ambitious plan to bring Khurasan under control.
• A massive army of 370,000 soldiers was recruited, with a year's salary paid in advance and substantial investments in equipment.
• When the project was deemed unrealistic and the army disbanded, it caused immense financial losses and damaged the Sultan's authority.
• This setback led to a wave of rebellions that weakened the Delhi Sultanate significantly.

Economic and Agrarian Reforms 

Agrarian Measures of Muhammad Tughluq:

• Muhammad Tughluq expanded Alauddin Khalji's revenue collection system to Gujarat, Malwa, Deccan, South India, and Bengal.
• Over time,agrarian taxation was significantly increased, with Barani suggesting increases of 10 to 20 times, indicating a substantial rise.
• New imposts (abwab) were introduced, and existing taxes like kharaj, charai, and ghari were collected more rigorously.
• To prevent concealment,cattle branding and cottage counting were implemented.
• For assessing kharaj, inflated official yields (wafa-i-farmani) and prices (nirkh-i-farmani) were used, overstating produce value and state share.
• This led to a contraction of plough area, peasant flight, revolts in the Doab and Delhi, and a famine from 1334-5 to 1342.
• In response,Muhammad Tughluq attempted to promote agriculture through agricultural loans(sondhar) for plough expansion and irrigation.
• Barani noted the distribution of 70 lakhs tanka in loans, though little reached peasants.
• A new ministry,diwan-i amir-i kohi, was established to promote agriculture by extending cultivation areas and improving existing land production.
• Crop rotation and pattern changes were introduced, including wheat for barley,sugarcane for wheat, and grapes and dates for sugarcane.
• A state-run model farm of 60 square miles was established with an investment of 70 lakhs tanka over two years.
• Despite the exorbitant spending, the scheme was abandoned after three years due to officer corruption,poor land quality, and lack of interest from cultivators.
• However, the idea of agricultural loans for extending and improving cultivation became a standard practice for later sultans and the Mughals.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq's agrarian innovation contributed to the evolution of agrarian policy, which was fully developed under the Mughals.

Token Currency of Muhammad Tughluq: 

Token Currency of Copper and Brass Alloy (with Value of Silver):

• Introduction of Token Currency: Muhammad Tughluq introduced a token currency of copper and brass alloy, valued at the equivalent of a silver tanka.
• Pioneering Inscription: For the first time, this coin featured an inscription in Persian.

Failure of Tughluq's Experiment:

• The experiment failed due to the ease of forgery.
• Barani's Account: Barani noted that every Hindu household became a mint, implying widespread forgery.
• Despite the failure, Tughluq gracefully exchanged all token currency.

Motives Behind Token Currency:

• Tughluq aimed to increase resources for conquests and administrative reforms.
• Barani's Perspective: According to Barani, Tughluq's ambition required a large army and treasury, leading to the introduction of token currency.
• Dirham Coins: Tughluq struck vast quantities of copper coins known as Dirham.
• Shortages of gold and silver were not major factors, as Tughluq exchanged token coins for gold and silver when the experiment failed.

Failure of Token Currency System:

• The experiment failed primarily due to widespread forgery.
• Barani's Insight: Barani suggested that every Hindu household became a mint, indicating the goldsmiths' ability to forge coins.
• The state incurred significant losses as rural leaders paid land revenue in the new coins, disrupting trade and commerce.
• The abundance of new coins led to rapid depreciation, prompting Tughluq to cancel the token currency.
• Tughluq redeemed token coins with gold and silver coins, but only for coins issued from royal mints.
• The token coins were made of copper and brass, with distinct Persian and Arabic inscriptions.
• Confusion arose due to the public's inability to distinguish between genuine and forged coins.
• Forged coins brought for redemption were rejected and piled outside the fort for a long time.
• Although the failure of token currency impacted the treasury, it did not significantly disrupt public life.
• The token currency was abandoned by 1333, three years after its introduction.
• Notably, Ibn Battutah, who visited Delhi in 1334, did not mention token coins, indicating that the episode was quickly forgotten.

Bureaucracy of Muhammad Tughluq

To implement his progressive ideas, Muhammad bin Tughlaq needed a progressive administrative system. His approach towards the nobility was not based on racial or narrow religious considerations.

He welcomed not only long-settled families who had served previous rulers but also admitted individuals from artisan classes despised by the Turks, like gardeners, barbers, cooks, weavers, wine-distillers, and musicians.

• Turks: They were the ruling elites from the beginning of the Delhi Sultanate and remained part of Tughlaq's bureaucracy.
• Foreign Elements: Tughlaq favored foreigners, offering them gifts and calling them "aziz" (friends). Notable examples include Afghan nobles like Malik Makh and Malik Shahu.
• Indian Converts: Converted individuals such as Aziz-ud-din Khammar, a distiller, were appointed to significant positions like Governor of Malwa.
• Hindus: Hindu officials like Kishan Bazran Indri were also included in the administration, with Indri becoming the governor of Sehwan (Sindh).
• Religious Classes: Tughlaq attempted to include members of religious classes, particularly Sufis, in his administration.
• Despised Artisans: Individuals from despised artisan classes, like Najba the singer and Aziz-ud-din Khammar the wine-distiller, were given important roles. For example, Najba was in charge of regions like Badaun, Gujarat, and Multan, while Khammar was responsible for Malwa.
• Criticism by Barani: Barani criticized Tughlaq for appointing individuals from lowly backgrounds, including clerks and grain-merchants (banias), who were seen as incompetent.
• Composite Ruling Class: Tughlaq aimed to create a composite ruling class of Hindus and Muslims, rising above class and caste limitations.
• Heterogeneous Bureaucracy: While the diverse bureaucracy had the potential to be effective, it lacked cohesion due to the Sultan's hasty temperament and the vastness of the empire, leading to the failure of many schemes.
• Loyalty Issues: Despite loyalty from low-caste appointees and some Turkish and Hindustani nobles, the Mongol and Afghan sadah amirs behaved differently, causing issues.
• Resentment from Old Nobles: The elevation of common people, like artisans, to high posts was resented by traditional nobles. Although these appointees were competent and meritorious, their lack of military background made them ineffective in dealing with rebellions.
• Lack of Cohesion: Tughlaq’s heterogeneous nobility lacked cohesion and loyalty, making it ineffective in supporting the Sultan during difficult times.

Rebellions during Mohammad Bin Tughlaq

To assess the true extent of Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s successes and failures, we may divide his reign into three unequal parts.

First phase (1324-1335):

Consolidation and Challenges in Muhammad bin Tughlaq's Reign (1330-1351):

• Muhammad bin Tughlaq focused on consolidating his vast kingdom during this phase.
• The only significant expansion was the conquest of Kampil in south Karnataka, following his campaign against the rebellion of his cousin Gurshasp.
• Rebellions in Multan, Lakhanauti, and Sindh were successfully suppressed.
• Despite the failures of his expeditions to Deogiri, Khurasan, and Karchil, as well as the experiment with token currency, the Sultan maintained a high level of prestige.
• Traveler Ibn Battutah noted that the ruler of Delhi was among the four most powerful rulers in the world at the time, alongside leaders from China, Iraq, and the Uzbeks.

The second phase (1236-45):

Second Phase of Muhammad bin Tughlaq's Rule

• The second phase of Muhammad bin Tughlaq's rule faced significant challenges, starting with a rebellion in Mabar and famine in the doab region.
• The failure of the Mabar campaign, exacerbated by an epidemic, led to the loss of control over all the southern states.
• Bengal was also lost during this period. The Sultan made little effort to recover these distant areas due to a lack of resources and the impracticality of direct administration from Delhi.
• The only area the Sultan focused on and managed to hold onto was Daultabad.
• During this time, there were numerous rebellions in north India and the Daultabad region, often linked to the discontent of old nobles and harsh revenue policies.
• One significant rebellion was led by Ainul Mulk, a former close associate of the Sultan and governor of Awadh. Muhammad Tughlaq became suspicious of Ainul Mulk's growing popularity and ordered his transfer to Daultabad, triggering the rebellion.
• Despite eventually pardoning Ainul Mulk, the conflict highlighted the deep divisions between Indian and foreign nobles in the Sultan's court.
• The Sultan favored foreign nobles, giving them lavish gifts, which further aggravated these divisions.
• In an attempt to strengthen his rule, Muhammad bin Tughlaq tried to include members of the religious classes, particularly sufis, in the administration. However, most sufis preferred to remain aloof from the state, leading to conflicts.
• In retaliation for his association with certain yogis and wandering saints, the qazis issued a fatwa allowing rebellion against the Sultan.
• To legitimize his rule in the eyes of the orthodox, Muhammad bin Tughlaq sought a formal rescript from the Caliph and even substituted the name of the Abbasid caliph on his coins.
• Despite receiving a formal rescript from the Caliph, the attitude of orthodox elements towards him did not change significantly.
• Rebellions during this period, such as those at Kara and Bidar, were often due to the Sultan granting contracts to individuals who failed to collect promised sums from the peasants, leading to local officials being squeezed.
• Rebellions in Malwa and Gujarat were also connected to this issue.
• Despite the repeated rebellions, the Sultan managed to contain them and maintained his prestige, receiving embassies from notable countries such as China,Egypt,Khurasana,Iraq,Transoxiana, and even some African countries.

The third phase (1346-51):

Rebellions and Campaigns During Muhammad bin Tughlaq's Reign:

• Rebellions erupted in Kulbarga and Malwa.
• A more significant rebellion occurred in Gujarat and at Bidar, led by Hasan Gangu.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq chose to personally lead the campaign against Gujarat due to its economic and strategic importance, despite the rebellion being led by lower-ranking sadah amirs.
• During his absence,Daultabad was lost, leading to the establishment of the Bahmani kingdom.
• Tughlaq spent two-and-a-half years in Gujarat, later campaigning in Saurashtra and then moving to Thatta(lower Sindh) in pursuit of the rebels.
• Tughlaq died before reaching Thatta.
• Meanwhile, a council of regency set up by him operated in Delhi, and there were no rebellions in the north during the Sultan’s extended absence.

Assessment of Muhammad bin Tughlaq

Muhammad bin Tughlaq's Legacy:

• Despite his limitations, Muhammad bin Tughlaq left behind a large empire with a functioning administration for his successor.
• His rash temperament,suspicious nature, and tendency to impose excessive punishments complicated his rule.
• The main challenges he faced were due to an empire that had grown too large and his attempt to enforce a uniform and highly centralized system of administration.
• Some of his experiments and reforms had lasting significance:
• Token Currency: Tughlaq's experiment with a token currency was a bold idea, ahead of its time.
• Agricultural Expansion: He indicated a direction for agricultural growth.
• Composite Ruling Class: Tughlaq took early steps toward creating a ruling class that included both Hindus and Muslims.
• Merit over Caste: He aimed to rise above caste limitations by including people from various backgrounds, not just landowners, in his administration.