International Relations Between Two World Wars | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

• International relations between the two world wars can be divided into two distinct phases, marked by the pivotal moment in January 1933 when Adolf Hitler rose to power in Germany.
• Before this, there was a reasonable hope for the maintenance of world peace, despite the League of Nations' failure to address Japanese aggression in Manchuria. However, once Hitler consolidated his control, the prospect of preventing any form of war, whether limited or full-scale, diminished significantly.

The first phase can be roughly divided into three periods:
1919-23:

• In the aftermath of the First World War, international relations were unsettled by issues stemming from the peace settlement, while the newly established League of Nations struggled to address these challenges.

Both Turkey and Italy expressed dissatisfaction with their treatment under the settlement:

• Turkey was willing to defy the settlement.
• Italy, soon to be under Mussolini's rule in 1922, demonstrated its resentment by:
  • Seizing Fiume, which had been awarded to Yugoslavia.
  • Engaging in the Corfu Incident.
• Later, Italian aggression would be directed towards Abyssinia in 1935.

The issue of German reparations and the question of Germany's ability to pay strained relations between Britain and France, as they had differing attitudes towards German recovery:

• France sought a weakened Germany.
• Britain preferred a strong Germany capable of purchasing British exports.

An attempt by Lloyd George to reconcile France and Germany at the 1922 Genoa Conference ended in failure.

• Relations deteriorated further in 1923 when French troops occupied the Ruhr, a crucial German industrial region, in an effort to seize goods in lieu of cash payments demanded from Germany. This action contributed to the collapse of the German currency.
• Meanwhile, the United States, while politically isolated, exerted significant economic influence over Europe by insisting on full payment of European war debts.
• Russia, now under Bolshevik (Communist) rule, was viewed with suspicion by Western countries, several of which, along with Japan, intervened against the Bolsheviks during the civil war that engulfed Russia from 1918 to 1920.
• The new states emerging from the war and the peace settlement, including Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, and Poland, faced serious internal problems and divisions, which had significant implications for international relations.

1924 to 1929:

• During this period, there was a notable improvement in the international atmosphere, partly due to changes in political leadership.
• In France,Edouard Herriot and Aristide Briand came to power, while in Germany,Gustav Stresemann and in Britain,Ramsay MacDonald also assumed leadership, all of whom were keen to enhance relations. This shift in leadership contributed to a more positive diplomatic environment.

Key developments during this time included:

• Dawes Plan (1924): Devised with American assistance, this plan alleviated the tensions surrounding German reparations.
• Locarno Treaties (1925): These treaties guaranteed the frontiers in Western Europe established at Versailles, effectively mitigating French concerns regarding German intentions.
• League of Nations Membership (1926): Germany was admitted to the League of Nations, marking a significant step in its reintegration into the international community.
• Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928): A total of 65 nations signed this pact, renouncing war as a means of resolving disputes, further emphasizing the commitment to peace.
• Young Plan (1929): This plan reduced German reparations to a more manageable level, contributing to a more stable international environment.

These developments created an optimistic outlook for a peaceful future.

1930 to 1933:

• As 1929 came to a close, the world began to encounter economic difficulties, which played a role in the decline of international relations. Economic factors were partly responsible for Japan's invasion of Manchuria in 1931, while widespread unemployment in Germany significantly contributed to Adolf Hitler's rise to power.
• In this challenging climate, the World Disarmament Conference convened in 1932, only to disband in failure after the German delegates walked out in 1933, marking a low point in international cooperation.

Attempts to Improve International Relations

The League of Nations:

• The League of Nations played a significant role in resolving various international disputes and problems.
• However, its authority was undermined because many countries preferred to sign agreements independently of the League, indicating a lack of confidence in its effectiveness.
• Countries were also unwilling to commit to providing military support to curb aggressors, further weakening the League's authority.

The Washington Conferences (1921-22):

• The Washington Conference (1921–22) aimed to limit the naval arms race and address conflicting interests among powers in the Pacific. It involved nine nations: the United States, Japan, China, France, Britain, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, and Portugal.
• One goal of the Washington Conferences was to improve relations between the USA and Japan. The USA was increasingly suspicious of Japan's growing power in the Far East and its influence in China, especially after Japan had seized Kiaochow and German islands in the Pacific during World War I.
• To prevent a naval building race, it was agreed that the Japanese navy would be limited to three-fifths the size of the American and British navies. In return, Japan agreed to withdraw from Kiaochow and the Shantung province of China, which it had occupied since 1914. Japan was allowed to keep the former German Pacific islands as mandates, and the treaty prohibited the construction of additional fortifications in the Pacific islands.
• Regarding China, a Nine-Power Treaty was established, where signatories agreed to the "Open Door" principle and to respect China's sovereignty, territorial integrity, and administrative independence.
• The Anglo-Japanese alliance had caused concern for the USA and Canada, as they believed British passive support extended Japanese influence in the Far East. The alliance, set to expire in 1921, was not renewed. Instead, the Four-Power Treaty was signed by Great Britain, France, Japan, and the USA, pledging to respect each other's rights in Pacific island possessions and agreeing to joint conferences for dispute resolution.
• The Washington Conference temporarily resolved differences among powers regarding the Far Eastern Question, and the agreements were considered a significant success at the time. America secured recognition for its "Open Door" policy and the lapse of the Anglo-Japanese alliance.
• China, on paper, was safeguarded against further exploitation and gained the restoration of Shantung, marking a political setback for Japan in its Chinese policy. However, despite efforts to check Japan, the Conference inadvertently increased Japan's power in the Far East.
• The established naval strength ratios and the agreement not to fortify Pacific islands ensured Japan's naval supremacy in the Far East. Japan emerged with the world's third-largest navy, concentrated in the Pacific, while Britain and the USA, despite larger navies, had their forces spread more widely. This made it challenging to maintain the status quo in the Pacific if Japan pursued aggressive actions, leading to unfortunate consequences for China in the 1930s when the USA refrained from intervening against Japanese aggression.

The Genoa Conference (1922):

• The Genoa Conference was proposed by British Prime Minister Lloyd George to address Franco-German hostility, European war debts to the USA, and the need to resume diplomatic relations with Soviet Russia.
• However, the conference failed due to French insistence on full reparations, American non-attendance, and the withdrawal of Russians and Germans to sign a mutual agreement elsewhere.
• Subsequently, when Germans refused to pay reparations, French troops occupied the Ruhr, leading to a deadlock as Germans responded with passive resistance.

The Dawes Plan (1924):

• The Dawes Plan was a response to the deadlock following the Genoa Conference.
• It aimed to address the issue of reparations by allowing Germany to pay only what it could afford until it became more prosperous.
• A foreign loan of 800 million gold marks, mostly from the USA, was provided to Germany.
• The plan was successful in stabilizing the German economy and easing international tensions.

The Locarno Treaties (1925):

• The Locarno Treaties were agreements involving Germany, France, Belgium, Britain, Italy, Poland, and Czechoslovakia, aimed at guaranteeing peace in Europe.
• The most important agreement was the mutual respect of frontiers among Germany, France, and Belgium, with Britain and Italy offering assistance in case of a breach.
• Germany agreed to arbitration with Poland and Czechoslovakia but did not guarantee frontiers with these countries.
• The treaties were initially welcomed and seen as a success for German foreign minister Stresemann.

Criticism of the Locarno Treaty:

• The Locarno Treaty was seen as undermining the Treaty of Versailles and the League Covenant.
• It differentiated between Germany's western and eastern borders, with Germany accepting its western frontiers but seeking revision of its eastern borders.
• Britain's promise to defend Belgium and France raised concerns about its commitment to Poland and Czechoslovakia.
• The treaty weakened the binding force of the Versailles Treaty and the League Covenant.
• Germany's subsequent actions, including a friendship treaty with the Soviet Union and violations of the Versailles Treaty, highlighted the treaty's long-term implications.

Stresemann and Briand:

• Stresemann and French Foreign Minister Briand, along with British Foreign Minister Chamberlain, were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their diplomatic efforts.
• In September 1926, they agreed on the withdrawal of French troops from the Rhineland, reflecting the "Locarno spirit."

The Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928):

• The Kellogg-Briand Pact, initially proposed by Briand to renounce war between France and the USA, was expanded to involve the whole world.
• Ultimately, 65 states signed the pact, agreeing to renounce war as a national policy tool.
• Despite its impressive appearance, the pact lacked enforcement measures against violators.
• Japan's signature did not prevent its subsequent war against China.

The Young Plan (1929):

• The Young Plan aimed to settle remaining reparation issues left unresolved by the Dawes Plan.
• Under improved conditions, reparations were reduced from £6600 million to £2000 million, to be paid over 59 years on a graded scale.
• This reduction was an admission of error by the Allies and aligned with Keynes' earlier suggestions.
• While welcomed by many in Germany, the Nazi party opposed the plan, seeking a quicker and more radical revision of the peace settlement.

Collapse of the Locarno Spirit:

• The death of Stresemann in October 1929, a key figure in promoting peaceful change in Europe, was a setback for the Locarno spirit.
• The Wall Street Crash in the same month triggered the Great Depression, leading to widespread unemployment in Germany and ending the fragile harmony of Locarno.

The World Disarmament Conference (1932-33)

• When the member states of the League of Nations accepted the Covenant, they all agreed to reduce armaments. However, only Germany made any real effort towards disarmament.
• In fact, most other countries increased their military spending during this period. From 1925 to 1933, global expenditure on arms rose from $3.5 billion to approximately $5 billion.
• The World Disarmament Conference convened in Geneva with the aim of finding a way to scale down armaments. However, if progress was not achievable during the Locarno honeymoon, it seemed unlikely in the turbulent atmosphere of the 1930s.
• The British argued that they needed more armaments to safeguard their empire. The French, concerned about the rapid rise of Nazi support in Germany, refused to disarm or to allow Germany to have equal armaments with them.
• In October 1933, Hitler, aware of Britain and Italy's sympathy towards Germany, withdrew from the conference, which marked the beginning of its failure.
• A week later, Germany also withdrew from the League of Nations.
• Looking back, it is evident that there was only limited success in improving international relations. Even the 'Locarno spirit' turned out to be an illusion, as it heavily relied on economic prosperity. When economic stability faded, old hostilities and suspicions resurfaced, leading to the rise of authoritarian regimes willing to engage in aggression.

Relations between the USSR and Britain, Germany, and France between the Two World Wars

The USSR and Britain:

• Relations between the USSR and Britain varied depending on the British government in power.
• Labour governments (1924 and 1929-31) were more sympathetic to Russia than Conservative ones.
• After attempts to overthrow the Bolsheviks failed, Lloyd George (British prime minister 1916-22) sought reconciliation, aligning with Lenin's desire for improved relations to attract foreign trade and capital.
• This led to the Anglo-Russian trade treaty in March 1921, significant for Russia as it was one of the first acknowledgments of the Bolshevik government, paving the way for similar agreements and full political recognition.
• However, relations soured when Lloyd George at the Genoa conference in 1922 suggested the Bolsheviks should pay war debts from the tsarist regime, prompting the Russians to leave the conference and sign the Treaty of Rapallo with Germany, alarming Britain and France.
• Relations briefly improved in 1924 when MacDonald and the Labour government recognized the communists diplomatically and signed a new trade treaty.
• Under Conservative rule (1924-29), relations deteriorated again.
• By 1933, with Stalin concerned about Hitler, he sought to improve relations with Britain.

The USSR and Germany:

• Relations between the USSR and Germany were more consistent and friendly compared to those with Britain because both countries saw mutual benefits in their relationship.
• The Germans aimed to exploit their friendship with the USSR, while the Bolsheviks sought stable relations with at least one capitalist power.
• A trade treaty was established in May 1921, followed by concessions to German industrialists for trade and mineral rights in Russia.
• The Rapallo Treaty of 1922, signed after both nations withdrew from the Genoa conference, marked a significant improvement:
• Full diplomatic relations were restored, and reparations claims between Germany and Russia were annulled.
• Both countries anticipated advantages from their newfound friendship, including cooperation to keep Poland weak.
• The USSR viewed Germany as a buffer against potential western attacks, while Germany benefitted from the ability to build factories in Russia for producing forbidden weapons, circumventing Versailles disarmament terms.
• In return, the Russians agreed to supply Germany with grain.
• The Treaty of Berlin in 1926 extended the Rapallo agreement for another five years, establishing mutual neutrality in case of attacks and prohibiting economic sanctions against each other.
• However, around 1930, relations began to cool due to rising concerns in Russia about German power and nationalism.
• The Russian apprehension intensified with the growth of the Nazi party, leading Russia to seek closer ties with Poland, France, and Britain.
• In January 1934, Hitler ended Germany's special relationship with the USSR by signing a non-aggression pact with Poland.

The USSR and France:

• The Bolshevik takeover in 1917 was a setback for France, which had relied on Russia to counterbalance Germany. The French saw the Bolsheviks as a threat and sought to eliminate them.
• France sent troops to support the anti-Bolsheviks (Whites) during the Russian civil war and influenced the decision to exclude the Bolsheviks from the Versailles Conference.
• France also intervened in the war between Russia and Poland in 1920, helping to repel a Russian advance on Warsaw, thus claiming to have halted the spread of Bolshevism.
• The subsequent alliance between France and Poland in 1921 was seen as a measure against both Russia and Germany.
• Relations improved in 1924 when diplomatic ties were reestablished, but France remained lukewarm, partly due to the French Communist Party's non-cooperation with other left-wing groups under Moscow's orders.
• It was not until the early 1930s, in response to the rise of the German Nazis, that both France and the USSR shifted their stance.