Science & Technology (Part 2): July 2025 Current Affairs | Current Affairs & General Knowledge - CLAT PDF Download

What is YD One?

Why in News?

In a significant advancement in mobility solutions, IIT Madras has recently introduced YD One, which is recognized as India's lightest wheelchair.

Key Takeaways

• YD One is India’s lightest active wheelchair, weighing only nine kilograms.
• It is the first indigenously developed precision-built mono-tube rigid-frame wheelchair in the country.
• Developed by IIT Madras’ TTK Center for Rehabilitation Research and Device Development (R2D2) in collaboration with Thryv Mobility.
• The wheelchair is fully customized to meet each user’s unique body, posture, and mobility needs.
• Constructed from aerospace-grade materials, it offers maximum strength and energy efficiency.
• Can support users weighing up to 120 kilograms.
• The compact design facilitates easy lifting and accommodation in various vehicles, enhancing portability.
• YD One aims to deliver high-performance mobility at a significantly lower cost compared to imported alternatives.

Additional Details

• Customization: Each YD One wheelchair is tailored specifically for the user, ensuring optimal comfort and functionality.
• The lightweight structure addresses longstanding issues of portability, allowing users to travel more freely in cars, auto-rickshaws, and public transport.
• YD One is designed to provide users with greater independence and dignity, making mobility more accessible.

This innovative wheelchair represents a major step forward in mobility technology, combining advanced engineering with user-centric design.

Key Facts about Antimatter

Why in News?

Recently, an international team of scientists in Europe has made a groundbreaking observation. They found that the matter and antimatter versions of a specific type of subatomic particle known as a baryon decay at different rates for the first time.

Key Takeaways

• Antimatter has properties opposite to those of ordinary matter.
• Antimatter particles include positrons, antiprotons, and antineutrons, collectively known as antiparticles.
• Antimatter cannot coexist with matter without annihilating each other, resulting in significant energy release.
• Antimatter was formed alongside matter after the Big Bang but is scarce in the current universe.
• Humans can create antimatter using high-energy collisions in particle accelerators like the Large Hadron Collider.

Additional Details

• Antimatter: Antimatter is fundamentally similar to ordinary matter but possesses an opposite electric charge. For instance, the positron (e⁺) is the antimatter counterpart of the electron, carrying a positive charge, while the antiproton (p) has a negative charge.
• Annihilation: When matter and antimatter come into contact, they annihilate each other, releasing large amounts of energy in the form of gamma rays or other elementary particles.
• Creation of Antimatter: Antimatter can be produced in controlled environments, such as particle accelerators, where high-speed collisions facilitate its formation.

In summary, while antimatter was created during the Big Bang, it remains rare in the universe today. The ability to generate antimatter in laboratories opens up exciting avenues for research in physics and cosmology.

Coronal Mass Ejections

Why in News?

Astronomers have recently explained the fascinating phenomena behind Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs), which led to spectacular northern lights observed in Ladakh during May 2024.

Key Takeaways

• CMEs are significant ejections of magnetized plasma from the Sun's corona.
• They are formed through magnetic reconnection, similar to solar flares.
• CMEs can travel at speeds between 250 km/s and 3000 km/s.
• When directed towards Earth, they can cause geomagnetic storms affecting technology.

Additional Details

• Formation of CMEs: These eruptions occur due to the twisting and realignment of the Sun's magnetic field, which can create strong localized magnetic fields that puncture the solar surface in active regions.
• CMEs typically occur near sunspot groups and often coincide with solar flares, although they do not always happen together.
• Speed and Size: CMEs can reach Earth in as little as 15-18 hours if they are directed at our planet, expanding to sizes that can span nearly a quarter of the distance from the Earth to the Sun.
• These events are most frequent during the solar maximum phase of the Sun's 11-year activity cycle.

In summary, CMEs are powerful solar phenomena with the potential to disrupt technological systems on Earth, highlighting the importance of monitoring solar activity.

Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) Celebrates 97 Years

Why in News?

The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) recently celebrated its 97th Foundation Day, highlighting its nearly century-long contributions to the field of agriculture in India.

Key Takeaways

• Established on July 16, 1929, ICAR has evolved into a premier organization for agricultural research and education in India.
• ICAR oversees a vast network including 113 research institutes and 74 agricultural universities.
• India achieved record foodgrain production under ICAR’s guidance, becoming the largest global producer and exporter of rice.

Additional Details

• Overview: ICAR operates as an autonomous body under the Department of Agricultural Research and Education (DARE), Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Government of India.
• Major Achievements:
  • In 2024-25, India recorded foodgrain production of 353.95 million tonnes, ranking first in rice and second in wheat production.
  • ICAR launched initiatives like "One Scientist One Product" and "Viksit Krishi Sankalp Abhiyan," impacting over 1.35 crore farmers.
• Research Contributions:
  • Developed 679 field crop varieties, including bio-fortified options.
  • Released 83 new horticultural varieties and established 9 Clean Plant Centres for disease-free germplasm.
• Natural Resource Management: Initiatives include the creation of a National Soil Spectral Library and promotion of climate-resilient practices.
• Livestock Sector Contributions: Registered 10 indigenous breeds and developed vaccines and diagnostic kits.
• Major National Programmes: Initiated global excellence centers and national missions on key agricultural commodities.

In summary, ICAR's ongoing efforts in agricultural research and education are pivotal in enhancing India's food security and agricultural productivity.

Breakthrough in Quantum Noise Research

Why in News?

Researchers at the Raman Research Institute (RRI) have discovered that quantum noise, typically viewed as detrimental, can actually facilitate a special connection between particles known as entanglement. This finding holds significant implications for the development of future quantum technologies.

Key Takeaways

• Quantum noise can sometimes generate or restore entanglement, contrary to its usual perception as harmful.
• Intraparticle entanglement shows resilience to noise, making it valuable for quantum technologies.

Additional Details

• Quantum Noise: Refers to random disturbances impacting quantum systems, leading to loss of coherence (decoherence). Traditionally, it is seen as a hindrance to quantum entanglement, essential for quantum computing and communication.
• Entanglement Concept: This phenomenon occurs when particles are correlated in such a way that the state of one instantly influences the state of another, regardless of the distance separating them.
• Effect of Decoherence: Noise-induced decoherence disrupts entanglement, diminishing the efficiency of quantum technologies.
• Types of Noise Studied:
  • Amplitude Damping: Involves loss of energy.
  • Phase Damping: Pertains to the loss of phase information.
  • Depolarizing Noise: Characterized by random alterations in quantum states.
• Major observations indicate that under amplitude damping, intraparticle entanglement can experience delayed decay and even revival from unentangled states, unlike interparticle entanglement which shows steady decay without revival.
• Scientific Implications: This new perspective challenges the notion that quantum noise is purely detrimental, suggesting it can also be a resource in specific contexts.
• Technological Potential: The resilience of intraparticle entanglement to noise enhances its applicability in stable quantum devices, relevant for quantum communication, quantum key distribution (QKD), and quantum sensing.
• Predictive Advantage: A newly developed formula provides accurate predictions of entanglement behavior, assisting in the design of robust quantum systems.
• Platform Independence: The findings are applicable across various platforms, including photons, neutrons, and trapped ions.

This research marks a significant advancement in our understanding of quantum noise and its potential benefits, paving the way for more efficient quantum technologies.

3I/ATLAS: A Possible 7-Billion-Year-Old Interstellar Comet Discovered

Why in News?

Recently, astronomers utilizing the ATLAS telescope in Chile have discovered 3I/ATLAS, the third known interstellar object, which may also be the oldest comet ever identified, with an estimated age exceeding 7 billion years.

Key Takeaways

• 3I/ATLAS was detected on July 1, 2025, in Río Hurtado, Chile.
• It has been confirmed as interstellar due to its hyperbolic orbit and high velocity of 57–68 km/s.
• Its estimated age ranges from 7.6 to 14 billion years, surpassing the 4.5-billion-year age of our solar system.

Additional Details

• Nature: 3I/ATLAS appears as an interstellar comet, exhibiting signs of activity such as a coma (a cloud of dust and ice) and possibly a tail as it approaches the Sun.
• Composition: It is rich in water ice and complex organic compounds, displaying a reddish hue that suggests it contains ancient, primordial material.
• Size: The estimated diameter of its nucleus is between 10 and 30 km, making it larger than previous interstellar objects like 1I/'Oumuamua and 2I/Borisov.
• Trajectory: The comet's closest approach to Earth will be approximately 270 million km (with no threat) and to the Sun about 210 million km between October 29–30, 2025. After perihelion, it will exit the solar system permanently.

3I/ATLAS offers a rare opportunity to study materials originating from another star system, potentially revealing insights into the formation of the Milky Way, other solar systems, and early star formation processes.

Back2Basics: ATLAS Telescope

• ATLAS: The Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System is a NASA-funded early warning initiative designed to detect small near-Earth objects (NEOs).
• Operated by the University of Hawaii's Institute for Astronomy, ATLAS encompasses five telescopes located in Hawaii, South Africa, Chile, and the Canary Islands.
• Each telescope features a 0.5-meter Wright-Schmidt design, a 1-meter focal length, and a 110 MP CCD detector with a 7.4° field of view.
• The system scans 20,000 square degrees of the sky three times a night, providing 1–3 week warnings for asteroids measuring 45–120 meters wide.
• In addition to asteroids, ATLAS is also capable of discovering supernovae, comets, dwarf planets, and variable stars.

What are Interstellar Objects?

• Overview: Interstellar objects are celestial bodies that originate outside our solar system and traverse through it on open-ended (hyperbolic) orbits.
• Key Characteristics:
  • They are not gravitationally bound to the Sun.
  • They travel at very high speeds, often unaffected by solar gravity.
  • They do not return after passing through the inner solar system.
• Known Interstellar Visitors:
  • (2017) – An asteroid-like object with no coma or tail.
  • (2019) – An active comet exhibiting typical cometary features.
  • (2025) – The object discussed above, 3I/ATLAS.
• Identification: Interstellar objects are confirmed through hyperbolic trajectories and high speeds that exceed gravitational escape velocity.
• Scientific Value:
  • They provide direct clues regarding planetary formation beyond our solar system.
  • They can unveil chemical signatures from other star systems.
  • They allow for the study of primordial matter from distant regions of the galaxy.
  • They act as natural probes from unknown areas of the Milky Way.

What is the difference between asteroids and comets?

• Asteroids are small rocky planetoids, while comets are composed of frozen gases held together by rocky and metallic materials.
•  Asteroids are primarily located between the orbits of Jupiter and Mars, whereas comets are generally found between Venus and Mercury.
• Comets exhibit a visible glowing tail, while asteroids do not.

Air India Crash: Why Fuel Control Switches Matter

Why in News?

The recent preliminary report from the Aircraft Accident Investigation Bureau (AAIB) concerning the Air India crash on June 12 has highlighted a critical issue: both engine fuel control switches transitioned from 'RUN' to 'CUTOFF' shortly after takeoff, which may have led to the accident. Cockpit recordings have revealed one pilot querying another about the potential fuel cut-off, which was denied. Despite both pilots having ample flying experience, investigators are currently analyzing flight and voice recorder data to discern the reasons behind the switch activation.

Key Takeaways

• The crash involved fuel control switches that are vital for engine operation.
• Investigations are ongoing to determine if human error, mechanical failure, or system malfunction led to the incident.

Additional Details

• Fuel Control Switches: These switches regulate the fuel flow to the engine and require intentional manual action to toggle between 'RUN' and 'CUTOFF'.
• On Boeing 787s, the switches are located below the thrust levers and are designed to prevent accidental activation through physical brackets and a stop-lock mechanism.
• In-flight usage is limited to emergencies, such as engine failure or severe damage. Under normal circumstances, accidental activation is deemed nearly impossible.
• In the case of Air India flight AI 171, both switches were moved to 'CUTOFF' immediately after takeoff, cutting off fuel from both engines.
• Experts contend that pilots typically only operate one switch at a time during mid-flight emergencies, as modern aircraft can fly on one engine alone.
• The fuel control switches in question are manufactured by Honeywell and have been previously flagged by the FAA for potential locking mechanism issues, which Air India did not address.

The preliminary findings raise significant concerns regarding cockpit procedures, safety checks, and possible technical faults. The investigation continues to explore the implications of the cockpit recordings, which suggest that neither pilot intentionally moved the switches during the climb.

Key Facts about Plague

Why in News?

A recent case in northern Arizona, United States, reported the first death from pneumonic plague in the region in 18 years, highlighting the ongoing risks associated with this infectious disease.

Key Takeaways

• Plague is caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis.
• It primarily spreads through flea bites from infected animals.
• The disease has historical significance, notably during the Middle Ages in Europe.
• There are three main types of plague: bubonic, septicemic, and pneumonic.

Additional Details

• Pneumonic plague: This form of plague affects the lungs and is the most severe type, often resulting from untreated cases of other plague forms.
• Plague can be very severe, with a case-fatality ratio of 30% to 60% for bubonic plague and nearly always fatal for pneumonic plague if not treated.
• It can be effectively treated with antibiotics, but prompt medical intervention is crucial to prevent serious health complications or death.

This incident serves as a reminder of the persistent threat of plague, particularly in rural areas of the western United States and certain regions of Africa and Asia.

What are Optical Atomic Clocks?

Why in News?

Researchers have recently performed the most precise global comparison of ten optical atomic clocks. This groundbreaking work aims to redefine the second by 2030, transitioning from the traditional caesium clocks to more accurate optical clocks.

Key Takeaways

• Global comparison of optical atomic clocks is paving the way for redefining the SI second.
• Optical clocks are expected to replace caesium clocks by 2030 due to their superior precision.

Additional Details

• Definition of a Second: The current SI unit of time is defined using caesium-133 (Cs) atomic clocks. In 1967, one second was established as the duration of 9,192,631,770 cycles of radiation corresponding to transitions in Cs-133 atoms.
• In caesium clocks, a microwave signal is fine-tuned until the Cs atoms respond maximally, ensuring the frequency is accurately set to 9,192,631,770 Hz. Frequency dividers count this microwave frequency, providing one tick per second, thereby realizing the SI definition of a second.
• About Caesium Atomic Clocks: These clocks utilize the oscillation frequency of caesium-133 atoms to define the current SI unit of time.
• Working Principle: Caesium clocks work by tuning microwave signals to resonate with caesium atoms and counting the resulting oscillations to measure time precisely.
• Stability and Usage: Caesium atomic clocks are highly stable and have been instrumental in establishing international time standards.
• Applications: They are widely used in GPS systems, telecommunications, scientific research, and by national metrology institutions like India’s National Physical Laboratory (NPL).
• Accuracy: A typical caesium atomic clock loses about one second every 300 million years.
• Optical Atomic Clocks: These advanced timekeeping devices operate using optical (visible light) frequency transitions in atoms like Strontium (Sr) and Ytterbium (Yb).
• Measurement Basis: Optical clocks measure time based on the oscillation of light emitted during atomic transitions at frequencies in the hundreds of trillions of Hz.
• Example Frequencies: Strontium clocks operate at approximately 429 trillion Hz, while Ytterbium ions exceed 642 trillion Hz.
• Precision Tools: They require advanced equipment like lasers and optical frequency combs to accurately count rapid oscillations.
• Future Standard: Optical atomic clocks are being tested globally and are anticipated to replace caesium clocks by 2030, redefining the SI second.
• How Optical Atomic Clocks are Better than Caesium:
  • Higher Frequency Operation: Optical clocks function at much higher frequencies, allowing for finer time divisions.
  • Improved Precision: By counting 10,000 times more oscillations per second, optical clocks achieve remarkable precision and stability.
  • Unmatched Accuracy: An optical atomic clock using strontium reportedly drifts by less than one second in 15 billion years, in contrast to the 300 million years drift seen in caesium clocks.
  • Advanced Applications: Their precision is vital for next-generation GPS systems, gravitational wave detection, and climate monitoring.
  • Ultra-High Synchronization: Optical clocks allow for cross-continental synchronization with an accuracy of up to 18 decimal places, crucial for global time coordination.
  • Noise Resilience: They exhibit greater resistance to environmental noise and external disturbances, enhancing long-term reliability.

In conclusion, the advancement in optical atomic clocks signifies a major leap in timekeeping technology, promising unparalleled accuracy and precision that will redefine our understanding of the second.

Miniature Plasma Loops

Why in News?

A recent study by astronomers at the Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA) and their collaborators has revealed the existence of miniature plasma loops in the Sun’s atmosphere. These elusive structures were captured using advanced high-resolution imaging and spectroscopy techniques.

Key Takeaways

• Miniature plasma loops are approximately 3,000–4,000 kilometers long and less than 100 kilometers wide.
• These loops are short-lived and have remained hidden until now, providing new insights into solar activity.
• They hold significant clues about how the Sun stores and releases magnetic energy.
• These structures enhance our understanding of coronal loops, which are larger arc-like structures of hot plasma in the solar corona.

Additional Details

• Coronal Loops: These are magnificent arc-like formations of hot plasma in the Sun's outer layer, glowing at temperatures exceeding one million degrees. Understanding the dynamics of miniature loops can help explain the behavior of these larger structures.
• The study of miniature loops is challenging as they are often concealed in the lower layers of the Sun's atmosphere, making detection difficult with previous telescopes.
• These findings represent a significant advancement in solar physics, offering a new perspective on how energy is stored and released in the solar atmosphere.

In conclusion, the discovery of miniature plasma loops not only enriches our knowledge of solar dynamics but also opens new avenues for research into the mechanisms of energy transfer in the Sun's atmosphere.

Magnetometer Innovations at Raman Research Institute

Why in News?

Researchers at the Raman Research Institute (RRI), which operates under the Department of Science and Technology (DST), have developed a groundbreaking method called Raman-Driven Spin Noise Spectroscopy (RDSNS) for magnetometry. This innovative approach aims to tackle existing challenges in magnetic field measurement.

Key Takeaways

• A magnetometer is a passive device used to measure variations in the Earth's magnetic field.
• Optically pumped atomic magnetometers (OPAMs) and Spin Exchange Relaxation Free (SERF) magnetometers are two prominent techniques but require complex magnetic shielding.
• RDSNS utilizes laser light to detect minute quantum fluctuations in Rubidium atoms, known as spin noise.
• This technique significantly enhances dynamic range while maintaining sensitivity, making it suitable for various applications.

Additional Details

• Magnetometer: A device that measures changes in magnetic fields; essential for applications in physics, medical imaging, and navigation.
• Raman-Driven Spin Noise Spectroscopy (RDSNS): A method that listens to the quantum jitters of Rubidium atoms, allowing for precise magnetic field measurements without disturbing the atoms.
• The RDSNS method could lead to faster, portable, and more accurate magnetic field measurement techniques that can operate effectively in noisy environments.
• This advancement holds promise for field-deployable applications across scientific, industrial, and exploratory domains.

The development of RDSNS represents a significant leap forward in the field of magnetometry, presenting new opportunities for research and practical applications in measuring magnetic fields with improved accuracy and efficiency.

Vera C Rubin Observatory

Why in News?

The Vera C Rubin Observatory in Chile has recently unveiled its first stunning images, highlighting the capabilities of its 3,200-megapixel digital camera, the largest ever constructed.

Key Takeaways

• Located at an elevation of 8,684 feet atop Cerro Pachón in the Chilean Andes.
• Named after astronomer Vera C Rubin, who contributed significantly to the understanding of dark matter in the 1970s.
• Collaborates with the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and the National Science Foundation (NSF).
• Will scan the southern hemisphere sky continuously for a decade, collecting 20 terabytes of data nightly.

Additional Details

• Simonyi Survey Telescope:The observatory's centerpiece, known for its remarkable capabilities:
  • Wide Field View: Unlike other telescopes, the Simonyi Survey Telescope offers a far broader view, akin to seeing much more than just the size of a straw.
  • Largest Digital Camera: The telescope features the world's largest digital camera, comparable in size to a small car and weighing 2,800 kg, with an impressive 3,200-megapixel resolution.
  • Rapid Movement: It is the fastest-slewing telescope globally, capable of moving to a new target in just five seconds, thanks to its innovative three-mirror design and oil-film mount.
• Crucial for advancing our understanding of dark matter and dark energy, which comprise 27% and 68% of the universe, respectively.

The Vera C Rubin Observatory marks a significant milestone in astronomical research, promising to deliver unprecedented insights into the cosmos and enhance our understanding of the universe.

1000 Quakes Rattle Japan’s Tokara Islands

Why in News?

Japan has experienced a significant increase in seismic activity, recording over 1,000 tremors within a two-week period near the Tokara Islands. This surge signals heightened geological instability in the region.

Key Takeaways

• Japan's geographical position makes it highly susceptible to earthquakes.
• The Tokara Islands are part of a volcanic archipelago that is strategically important due to regional tensions.

Additional Details

• Tectonic Plate Convergence: Japan is located at the intersection of four major tectonic plates: the Pacific, Philippine Sea, Eurasian, and North American plates, which continuously collide and shift, leading to frequent seismic events.
• Subduction Zones: The oceanic plates, namely the Pacific and Philippine Sea plates, are being forced under continental plates, resulting in immense geological stress that is released as earthquakes.
• Pacific Ring of Fire: Japan is situated within this active seismic zone that encircles the Pacific Ocean and is responsible for approximately 90% of the world's earthquakes.
• Volcanic and Fault Line Density: The nation is home to about 10% of the world’s active volcanoes and a multitude of fault lines, increasing its vulnerability to seismic activity.

The Tokara Islands, part of the Ryukyu archipelago in southern Japan, consist of 12 islands, of which 7 are inhabited, including Nakanoshima, Takarajima, and Kodakarajima. These islands are strategically important due to increasing geopolitical tensions in the East China Sea, notably involving China and Taiwan. Recent defense policies have emphasized the need to fortify the Tokara and Nansei Islands for enhanced surveillance in the region.

In historical context, Japan has faced significant challenges from earthquakes, including a notable event in 2007 that resulted in massive radioactive water leakage from the world's largest nuclear plant. This incident spotlighted the country’s seismic risks and their implications for safety and energy security.

Helgoland: The Birthplace of Quantum Theory

Why in News?

Helgoland, a small island in the German Bay of the North Sea, is recognized by physicists as a significant location in the history of quantum mechanics. It was here that Werner Heisenberg developed groundbreaking ideas that shaped modern physics.

Key Takeaways

• Helgoland is a tiny island characterized by red sandstone cliffs.
• It was historically a naval fortress and is now a center for quantum theory.

Additional Details

• Werner Heisenberg: In June 1925, while suffering from hay fever in Göttingen, Heisenberg retreated to Helgoland. There, he shifted his focus from the classical model of electrons orbiting an atom’s nucleus to a new approach based solely on experimental data, particularly the frequencies and strengths of light emitted or absorbed by atoms.
• To organize this data, Heisenberg created grids known as matrices. The multiplication of these matrices was significant; the order of multiplication mattered, leading to the realization that position multiplied by momentum is not equal to momentum multiplied by position. This insight resulted in equations that accurately described the spectrum of hydrogen atoms.

Through these developments, Heisenberg laid the groundwork for what would become known as matrix mechanics, the first complete version of quantum mechanics.

How Heat Led to Protocells Formation on Earth

Why in News?

A recent study published in Nature Physics suggests that warm volcanic rock surfaces may have played a crucial role in concentrating organic molecules within watery cracks, potentially triggering life-like chemistry. This offers insights into how protocells could have formed without membranes before the advent of life.

Key Takeaways

• Protocells are primitive, cell-like structures that may represent early precursors to biological cells.
• They provided a space for early chemical interactions despite lacking complex cellular components.

What are Protocells?

• Overview: Protocells are believed to be early forms of life, functioning as bubbles that facilitated chemical reactions.
• Lack of Complexity: These structures did not possess organelles or DNA but could retain essential molecules like RNA and amino acids.
• Membrane Role: They often formed simple membranes, allowing molecules to remain contained and interact more efficiently, promoting reactions like protein synthesis.
• Importance: Protocells illustrate how basic chemistry could evolve into biology, serving as a bridge between non-living and living systems.

History of Formation of Protocells

• Early Earth Conditions: Over 3.5 billion years ago, Earth's surface featured warm water pools and volcanic cracks rich in organic molecules produced by natural processes, such as lightning.
• Compartmentalization: The initial step towards life involved concentrating useful molecules, allowing them to react and leading to the emergence of bubble-like protocells.
• Old Theories: In the 1920s, scientists Oparin and Haldane theorized that life originated in a "primordial soup" through spontaneous chemical reactions in early Earth's oceans.
• Modern Insights: Recent studies indicate that volcanic rock cracks and hydrothermal vents created temperature gradients and water flows that facilitated protocell formation, negating the need for complex membranes.

Key Findings in the 2025 Study

• Lab Setup: Scientists constructed a 170-micrometre chamber with a warm top (40°C) and cool bottom (27°C) to simulate early Earth rock cracks.
• DNA Test: They introduced DNA and a protein synthesis kit (PURExpress). Protein synthesis, demonstrated by the production of green fluorescent protein (GFP), occurred solely in the warm-cool chamber.
• Molecule Gathering: Key ingredients like DNA, magnesium, and phosphate ions were observed to concentrate significantly at the bottom—up to 70 times more than at the top.
• Cell-Like Behavior: The system maintained important molecules while allowing waste to escape, mimicking the selectivity of real cells.
• Big Implication: This research supports the hypothesis that life could emerge in simple natural environments using just heat, flow, and basic chemicals—long before the development of fully functional cells.

Very Massive Stars

Why in News?

A recent study highlights that 'very massive stars' or 'very luminous stars' are emitting a substantially greater amount of material throughout their lifecycle compared to previously understood levels.

Key Takeaways

• Very massive stars possess over 100 times the mass of the Sun.
• They consume their nuclear fuel at an accelerated pace, resulting in an average lifespan of only a few million years.
• Upon exhausting their nuclear fuel, these stars collapse to form black holes.

Additional Details

• Stellar Wind: These stars generate a powerful stellar wind capable of ejecting their outer layers into space.
• Influence on Surroundings: Despite their brief existence, very massive stars significantly impact their environment, pushing newly formed elements, including essential life components like carbon and oxygen, into the surrounding space.
• These stars are often seen as predecessors to black holes and can create black hole binaries, which orbit each other and produce detectable gravitational waves on Earth.

In summary, while very massive stars have short lifespans, their influence on the cosmos is profound, affecting star formation and the distribution of critical elements across the universe.

Ham Radio and Its Importance

Why in News?

Indian astronaut Shubhanshu Shukla recently engaged with students across the country through a ham radio from the International Space Station (ISS), highlighting the significance of amateur radio in modern communication.

Key Takeaways

• Ham radio is a licensed radio service that utilizes radio waves for communication.
• It serves educational purposes and is vital for emergency communication.
• In India, anyone over the age of 12 can operate a ham radio with a license from the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology.

Additional Details

• Amateur Radio: Also referred to as ham radio, it allows licensed operators to communicate locally, globally, and even in space using a transceiver and an antenna.
• Reliability: Despite advancements in technology, ham radio remains one of the most dependable modes of communication, especially during emergencies.
• Historically, ham radio has played a crucial role during crises, such as the Bhuj earthquake in 2001, the Indian Ocean tsunami in 2004, and the Uttarakhand floods in 2013.

In conclusion, ham radio not only serves as a valuable tool for communication during emergencies but also fosters educational interactions, as seen in Shubhanshu Shukla's recent outreach to students from space.

Endocrine Disruptors in Plastic Waste

Why in News?

Recent concerns have emerged regarding the infiltration of microplastics and endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) into the human body. These substances pose significant risks, influencing various aspects of health, including reproduction, cancer susceptibility, metabolism, and child development.

Key Takeaways

• EDCs interfere with the body's hormone systems, affecting multiple physiological processes.
• Exposure can occur through contaminated food, polluted air, and direct contact with certain plastics.
• Long-term health effects include reproductive issues, hormonal imbalances, and increased cancer risks.

Additional Details

• Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals: These substances disrupt hormonal functions by mimicking or blocking natural hormones such as estrogen and testosterone, leading to significant health issues.
• Sources: Common sources of EDCs include plastic bottles containing Bisphenol A, toys, cosmetics with phthalates, food wrappers with Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances, and pesticides.
• Health Implications: EDCs are linked to reduced sperm quality, irregular menstrual cycles, and increased risks of miscarriage. They also trigger early puberty, thyroid dysfunction, and hormonal imbalances.
• Cancer Risks: Several EDCs are classified as probable carcinogens and are associated with cancers of the breast, uterus, prostate, and testicles.
• Metabolic Effects: These chemicals disrupt insulin functions, contributing to obesity and type 2 diabetes, with further links to liver and heart diseases.
• Neuroscience Impact: Early exposure to EDCs has been associated with developmental issues in children, including ADHD and lower IQ.
• Transgenerational Effects: EDCs may alter gene expression, potentially affecting the health of future generations even without direct exposure.

In conclusion, the pervasive presence of endocrine disruptors in our environment, particularly from plastic waste, presents a significant public health challenge that requires urgent attention and action.

Indian Scientists Create High-Performance Supercapacitor Material

Why in News?

Scientists from Bengaluru, in collaboration with Aligarh Muslim University, have developed an advanced material that significantly enhances the performance of supercapacitors.

Key Takeaways

• New material improves supercapacitor efficiency and performance.
• Utilizes eco-friendly and non-toxic silver niobate as the base material.
• Lanthanum doping enhances electrical performance.

Additional Details

• What are Supercapacitors? Supercapacitors are fast-charging energy devices that store and release energy much quicker than traditional batteries, making them ideal for applications in phones, electric vehicles, and solar systems.
• Trade-Off in Storage: While supercapacitors charge rapidly, they typically hold less energy compared to conventional batteries. Researchers aim to increase their energy capacity without losing their quick-charging capabilities.
• About the New Material:The new material, lanthanum-doped silver niobate, shows remarkable characteristics:
  • It retained 118% of its capacity after repeated use, indicating improvement over time.
  • It demonstrated 100% energy efficiency, wasting no energy during charge or discharge.
  • It provided faster and steadier energy delivery compared to previous materials.
  • A real-world test showed it could power an LCD screen, confirming its practical applications.
  • Additionally, it is lead-free and environmentally safe.
  • Future potential includes scaling this method for use in electronics, electric vehicles, and solar technology.

Overall, the advancements made by the research team represent significant progress in supercapacitor technology, with promising implications for future energy storage solutions.

Electronic Private Automatic Branch Exchange (EPABX) in Modern Communication

Why in News?

In most modern office environments, internal and external communication is effectively managed through a technology known as EPABX — Electronic Private Automatic Branch Exchange.

Key Takeaways

• EPABX is essential for efficient management of phone calls in offices.
• It facilitates both intercom communication and external telephone access.
• Modern systems enhance productivity with features like voicemail and call recording.

Additional Details

• What is EPABX: It is a system used by offices to manage internal and external phone calls efficiently.
• Internal and External Communication: EPABX enables intercom communication within the organization and provides access to external telephone lines through a unified network.
• Call Handling Features: EPABX can route, transfer, forward, or hold calls, reducing the need for multiple phone lines and improving overall communication.
• Modern Features: Advanced EPABX systems offer voicemail, call recording, automated attendants, and digital tool integration for business productivity.

How EPABX Works?

• Starting a Call: When the phone is picked up, an off-hook signal goes to the EPABX, which responds with a dial tone.
• Making Internal Calls: Users dial an extension number (like 104), and the EPABX connects them through its internal switching system.
• Making External Calls: To reach outside numbers, users dial an access code (usually 0) followed by the number; EPABX connects via the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN).
• Handling Incoming Calls: Calls from outside are routed to the right extension using either a receptionist or an automated system (IVR) in newer setups.
• Switching Logic: The EPABX system works like a railway yard, directing signals along the correct path between the caller and the recipient.

Advancements in EPABX Technology

• Early Systems: Older EPABX systems used electromechanical switches like crossbars for call routing.
• Digital Transition: Since the 1980s, systems adopted Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) and Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) to digitize and share voice signals over fewer lines.
• VoIP Technology: Modern EPABX uses Voice over IP (VoIP) to transmit calls over the internet, similar to email routing using IP addresses.

What is India Energy Stack?

Why in News?

The Union Ministry of Power has announced the formation of a task force responsible for designing the India Energy Stack (IES), a new Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) aimed at revolutionizing the energy sector in India.

Key Takeaways

• The IES aims to create a unified, secure, and interoperable digital backbone for India's entire energy ecosystem.
• It includes stakeholders such as energy producers, grid operators, distribution companies (discoms), consumers, regulators, and markets.
• The task force is comprised of 17 members, with Nandan Nilekani serving as Chief Mentor and RS Sharma as Chairperson, supported by REC Ltd as the nodal agency.
• A 12-month proof of concept (PoC) will test key components, including the Utility Intelligence Platform (UIP), in states like Delhi, Gujarat, and Maharashtra.
• The initiative is expected to facilitate India's transition to net-zero emissions and enhance consumer participation in energy trading.

Additional Details

• Scalability and Integration: The IES supports the integration of technologies such as smart meters, real-time analytics, and battery storage systems, aligning with India's energy digitization goals.
• Unique IDs: It provides digital identification for consumers, assets, and energy transactions, enabling seamless tracking and verification.
• Real-Time Data Sharing: The platform features consent-based and standardized data exchange mechanisms that improve efficiency and transparency among stakeholders.
• Open APIs: The IES facilitates the integration of third-party solutions, promoting innovation within energy fintech ecosystems.
• Interoperability: It allows communication between fragmented digital platforms used by various state utilities and regulators, enhancing overall functionality.
• Peer-to-Peer Energy Trading: This feature empowers prosumers (producers + consumers) to buy, sell, or store energy using a digital marketplace.
• Carbon Offset Tracking: Supports environmental compliance through transparent and verifiable emission reduction accounting.
• Decentralised Energy Management: Enables small-scale producers and communities to engage in energy markets via smart contracts and virtual power plants.

The India Energy Stack represents a significant step towards modernizing India's energy landscape, facilitating the integration of renewable energy sources, and enhancing consumer participation in the energy market.

UPSC 2016

Which one of the following is a purpose of ‘UDAY’, a scheme of the Government?

• (a) Providing technical and financial assistance to start-up entrepreneurs in the field of renewable sources of energy
• (b) Providing electricity to every household in the countries by 2018
• (c) Replacing the coal-based power plants with natural gas, nuclear, solar, wind and tidal power plants over a period of time
• (d) Providing for financial turnaround and revival of power distribution companies

Breakthrough in Altermagnets Study

Why in News?

Researchers at the S N Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences (SNBNCBS) have made a significant discovery regarding the novel transport behavior in chromium antimonide (CrSb), a newly identified member of the promising class of magnetic materials known as altermagnets.

Key Takeaways

• Altermagnets combine features of both ferromagnets and antiferromagnets.
• They exhibit unique internal magnetic behavior without attracting external metals.
• Ideal for spintronics, enabling faster and energy-efficient electronic devices.

Additional Details

• Definition: Altermagnets are a new class of magnetic materials that merge the properties of ferromagnets (which display external magnetism) and antiferromagnets (which do not).
• Unique Feature: Unlike regular magnets, they do not attract metals but maintain active internal magnetic behavior, making them valuable in advanced technologies.
• Use in Spintronics: These materials leverage electron spin for improved device efficiency.
• No Magnetic Interference: They do not generate external magnetic fields, ensuring stability and safety for nearby electronics.
• Energy Efficient: Their structure mitigates heat and energy loss, suitable for modern, low-power gadgets.
• Scientific Rarity: With very few known altermagnets, each discovery holds significant importance to materials science.
• Potential Applications: Altermagnets could aid in developing smaller memory chips and faster processors, potentially even supporting quantum computing.
• Internal Action: They are likened to "quiet magnets," functioning internally without causing magnetic noise.

Recent Discovery - Chromium Antimonide (CrSb)

• Indian Breakthrough: Indian scientists have identified CrSb as a new altermagnet, exhibiting rare direction-dependent conduction properties.
• Directional Behavior: CrSb demonstrates n-type conduction when current flows along its layers and p-type conduction across them.
• First of its Kind: This marks the first instance of an altermagnet displaying dual conduction behavior in different directions.
• Device Simplification: The ability of CrSb to act as both p-type and n-type can lead to reduced circuit sizes and eliminate the need for doping.
• Eco-friendly Material: Composed of non-toxic, common elements, CrSb is ideal for sustainable electronics.
• Future Potential: CrSb may be used in solar cells, batteries, and processors, enhancing efficiency while being environmentally friendly.
• Environment-Friendly Tech: This material supports low-cost, eco-friendly electronics without compromising performance.

The discoveries surrounding altermagnets, particularly chromium antimonide, open new avenues for research and application in the field of materials science, reinforcing the importance of sustainable and efficient technologies.

Altermagnets

Why in News?

Researchers have recently discovered an intriguing electrical and thermal transport phenomenon in the high-quality single-crystalline altermagnet, chromium antimonide (CrSb), marking a significant advancement in the study of magnetic materials.

Key Takeaways

• Altermagnets possess unique properties combining features of both ferromagnets and antiferromagnets.
• CrSb is identified as a leading candidate for future electronic applications due to its remarkable attributes.

Additional Details

• Definition of Altermagnets: A newly identified class of magnetic materials that exhibit zero net magnetism externally, yet display useful electron behaviors internally, particularly beneficial for spintronics.
• Unique Properties: Altermagnets showcase a dual nature, resembling antiferromagnets with no net magnetization and ferromagnets with spin splitting, resulting from complex atomic interactions within their crystal structures.
• Spin Polarization: This refers to the tendency of electron spins to align in a specific direction, which is significant in both real space (physical arrangement) and momentum space (distribution of spins).
• Research suggests that altermagnets could play a crucial role in spin caloritronics, a field examining the relationship between spin and heat flow, offering advantages over traditional magnetic materials.
• CrSb Characteristics: As one of the most notable altermagnets, CrSb is metallic, sustaining magnetic order at temperatures exceeding twice that of room temperature and exhibiting the highest altermagnetic spin-splitting.
• CrSb is the first known altermagnet to display direction-dependent conduction polarity, making it exceptionally promising for practical applications.
• Constructed from earth-abundant and non-toxic elements, CrSb represents an environmentally friendly option for future electronic technologies.

In conclusion, the discovery of altermagnets, particularly CrSb, opens new avenues in the field of electronic materials, highlighting their potential in enhancing information processing and storage technologies.

Essential Tremors and the MRgFUS Procedure

Why in News?

The recent successful use of Magnetic Resonance-guided Focused Ultrasound (MRgFUS) for treating essential tremors has garnered attention as a promising non-surgical intervention for this neurological disorder.

Key Takeaways

• Essential tremors are common neurological disorders affecting approximately 1% of the global population.
• The MRgFUS procedure offers a non-invasive treatment option for individuals suffering from essential tremors.

Additional Details

• Essential Tremors: This neurological disorder causes uncontrollable shaking in various body parts, such as hands, head, and voice. It primarily affects individuals over 65 but can occur at any age.
• Causes: The exact cause of essential tremors remains unknown, but it is believed to involve improper communication within the cerebellum, which controls muscle coordination. Genetic factors play a role, with a 50% chance of inheritance if a parent has the disorder.
• Treatments: While there is no cure for essential tremor, treatment options include medications, assistive devices, botulinum toxin, deep brain stimulation, and focused ultrasound.
• MRgFUS Procedure: This non-surgical intervention utilizes MRI-guided focused ultrasound to target and ablate specific brain tissue in the thalamus, significantly reducing tremors, often within the same treatment session.

The advent of MRgFUS represents a significant advancement in the management of essential tremors, providing hope for patients whose daily lives are disrupted by this condition.