International Relations (Part 2): August 2025 Current Affairs | Current Affairs & General Knowledge - CLAT PDF Download

GS2/International Relations

How much India should trade with Russia must not be guided by Western diktat

Why in News?

Recently, US President Donald Trump threatened additional penalties on Indian imports, specifically targeting India's purchase of discounted Russian oil.

Key Takeaways

• India's oil imports from Russia surged due to steep price discounts.
• The US has issued warnings regarding potential trade penalties linked to India's energy trade with Russia.
• India's strategic foreign policy emphasizes national interests over external pressures.

Additional Details

• Steep Price Discounts: Russian crude oil is available at prices significantly below global benchmarks, leading to a rise in India's imports from $2.1 billion in 2020-21 to $56.9 billion in FY 2024-25.
• Energy Security Priority: For India, securing affordable and reliable energy is crucial for economic stability and consumer welfare.
• No UN Sanctions: India continues its trade with Russia as Russian oil is not under UN sanctions, which provides a legal framework for its purchases.
• Strategic Pragmatism: India adheres to a non-aligned foreign policy that prioritizes national needs over bloc politics.

India faces significant pressure from the US and NATO regarding its continued trade with Russia. The US has threatened a 25% tariff on Indian goods and warned of secondary sanctions for countries engaging in business with Russia. There is also legislative pressure in the US proposing a 500% duty on imports from nations trading in Russian-origin petroleum and uranium, which could adversely affect Indian exports to the US.

Additionally, India's ongoing trade with Russia could strain its strategic ties with Western allies, complicating defense cooperation and technology sharing. This scenario necessitates that India reevaluate its energy security strategy and reduce its reliance on Russian crude due to increasing Western pressure.

Strategic Changes for Oil Imports

• Diversify Import Sources: India can boost crude purchases from Gulf countries, the US, Latin America, and Africa, reducing reliance on Russia. For example, it has increased imports from Iraq and Saudi Arabia.
• Sign Long-term Contracts: Establishing long-term agreements with stable oil-exporting nations is essential for a steady supply. For instance, India signed a long-term deal with the Abu Dhabi National Oil Company (ADNOC).
• Invest in Strategic Partnerships: Strengthening ties through energy diplomacy and joint ventures in oil exploration abroad is vital. Indian PSUs like ONGC Videsh have stakes in oil fields in Vietnam, Venezuela, and Russia.
• Leverage Spot Market: Utilizing the global spot market for short-term deals and enhancing strategic petroleum reserves (SPRs) can be beneficial. India has successfully bought crude from the US and Nigeria during price dips.
• Boost Domestic Refining Flexibility: Upgrading refineries to process diverse crude grades is necessary for broader import options. Reliance and Indian Oil refineries can handle crude from various regions, including the US, Middle East, and West Africa.

Protecting National Interests

• Prioritize Strategic Autonomy: India should maintain an independent foreign policy, making decisions based on national interests rather than aligning with any geopolitical bloc.
• Engage in Diplomatic Dialogue: Proactively communicating with Western partners to clarify its energy needs and seeking carve-outs from potential sanctions is crucial.
• Strengthen Domestic Resilience: Increasing investments in renewable energy, expanding strategic oil reserves, and boosting refining capacity will reduce vulnerability to external shocks.
• Balance Competing Relationships: Careful navigation of ties with both Russia and the West is essential to ensure that economic cooperation does not compromise strategic partnerships elsewhere.

The situation highlights the tension India faces in aligning its national ambitions with global pressures, emphasizing the importance of an independent approach to its foreign policy and energy security.

GS2/International Relations

What Has Been Missed is India’s Digital Sovereignty

Why in News?

The India-United Kingdom Free Trade Agreement (FTA), officially known as the Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA), has received significant attention as a model for future trade negotiations. However, a critical area that has been overlooked is India's digital sector, which raises concerns about the long-term impact on India's digital sovereignty.

Key Takeaways

• India has made concerning concessions regarding its digital sovereignty in the India-UK FTA.
• The abandonment of the right to demand source code disclosure from foreign digital service providers is a significant reversal of policy.
• Providing non-discriminatory access to 'Open Government Data' to UK entities poses risks to India's competitive edge in AI and digital technologies.
• The lack of a political constituency for digital sovereignty in India has allowed for these concessions without public debate.
• India must develop a robust digital sovereignty strategy to protect its interests.

Additional Details

• Source Code Disclosure: India has historically maintained the right to inspect software source code to ensure compliance and public safety. This FTA marks a significant policy shift, moving away from this stance.
• Open Government Data: The agreement to provide access to this data risks turning India into a data mine for foreign entities, jeopardizing national security and innovation.
• The inclusion of clauses that require consultation with the UK for similar concessions to other nations indicates a weakening of India’s negotiating power.
• The absence of a vocal political constituency for the digital sector has allowed these concessions to proceed with little resistance.

The India-U.K. FTA represents a crucial juncture for India's digital future. It deviates from previous positions on digital rights and sovereignty. Without addressing these concessions, India risks losing control over its digital ecosystem. Immediate action is required to ensure India can assert its interests and move towards becoming a digital superpower rather than a passive participant in the global digital landscape.

GS2/International Relations

Gaza War Puts IMEC’s Future in Doubt

Why in News?

India’s National Security Council Secretariat recently convened officials from various countries, including the U.S., UAE, Saudi Arabia, France, Italy, Germany, Israel, Jordan, and the EU, to assess progress on the India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC). This article explores the corridor's ambitions, challenges, and future prospects amid ongoing regional conflicts.

Key Takeaways

• The IMEC aims to enhance connectivity between Asia, the Arabian Gulf, and Europe, announced during the 2023 G20 Summit in New Delhi.
• It includes two main segments: the India-Gulf corridor and the Gulf-Europe corridor.
• The project seeks to reduce shipping times by approximately 40% compared to existing routes.
• The progress of IMEC is severely impacted by the ongoing conflict in Gaza.

Additional Details

• IMEC Overview:The India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC) consists of two segments:
  • India-Gulf corridor: Links India’s western ports to the UAE and from there to Haifa, Israel, via high-speed freight rail through Saudi Arabia and Jordan.
  • Gulf-Europe corridor: Connects Haifa to Greece and Italy by sea, followed by further transport through European rail networks.
• Geopolitical Context: Initially conceived during a period of relative stability in the Middle East, the IMEC was expected to benefit from Arab normalization with Israel, notably with Saudi Arabia's anticipated involvement.
• Economic Significance: The EU is India's largest trading partner, with bilateral trade reaching $137.41 billion in FY 2023-24, emphasizing the corridor's potential economic impact.
• Challenges: The war in Gaza has shifted the challenges of the IMEC from manageable to fundamental, notably affecting Jordan-Israel cooperation and diminishing Saudi-Israel normalization prospects.
• The conflict has raised insurance costs for regional trade, complicating the project's implementation.

While the IMEC holds significant potential for enhancing economic ties, its future is uncertain due to the ongoing conflicts. The restoration of regional stability is crucial for realizing the vision established in 2023, particularly regarding the Palestinian statehood issue. Until a lasting peace is achieved, efforts will remain focused on planning and trade facilitation rather than concrete progress.

GS2/International Relations

UN Conference on Landlocked Developing Countries

Why in News?

The third United Nations Conference on Landlocked Developing Countries (LLDC3) recently commenced in Awaza, Turkmenistan, highlighting the unique challenges faced by the 32 landlocked developing nations, which together are home to over 600 million individuals.

Key Takeaways

• LLDC3 is held once every ten years and aims to draw global attention to the issues confronting landlocked developing countries.
• The conference focuses on creating partnerships and frameworks that enhance trade, investment, and infrastructure development.

Additional Details

• Awaza Programme of Action (2024–2034): This initiative serves as a central theme for LLDC3, having been adopted by consensus at the UN General Assembly on December 24, 2024. It provides a comprehensive strategy to address ongoing developmental hurdles faced by LLDCs.
• The APoA emphasizes five interconnected priority areas:
  • Structural Transformation, and Science, Technology, and Innovation
  • Trade, Trade Facilitation, and Regional Integration
  • Transit, Transport, and Connectivity
  • Enhancing Adaptive Capacity, Strengthening Resilience, and Reducing Vulnerability
  • Implementation, Follow-up, and Monitoring

This year's conference, themed "Driving Progress through Partnerships," aims to mobilize investments, tackle structural challenges, and implement the newly adopted Awaza Programme of Action to foster development in LLDCs.

GS2/International Relations

India–U.S. Trade Friction Escalates Amid Russian Oil Dealings

Why in News?

Recent tensions in India-U.S. economic relations have escalated following U.S. President Donald Trump's announcement of significant tariff increases on Indian imports. This decision is primarily attributed to India's continued purchases of oil from Russia, which the U.S. perceives as problematic. India has responded firmly, calling the tariffs "unjustified and unreasonable," emphasizing its energy security needs amidst ongoing global geopolitical complexities.

Key Takeaways

• Trump's tariff hikes are a response to India's oil imports from Russia.
• India defends its energy security, highlighting Western countries' continued trade with Russia.
• This situation poses challenges for India's foreign policy and economic strategy.

Additional Details

• Tariffs: A tariff is a tax imposed by a government on imported goods, raising costs for consumers and potentially protecting domestic industries. However, it may also lead to retaliation and higher prices.
• Sectors Likely to be Affected:
  • Pharmaceuticals: India’s major generic drug exports to the U.S. may face price increases.
  • Metals and Engineering Goods: Steel and aluminum sectors are particularly vulnerable.
  • Textiles and Apparel: This sector operates on thin margins and could be heavily impacted.
  • IT Services: While not directly affected, broader trade tensions could have indirect repercussions.
  • Petrochemicals: India's refining of Russian crude may come under scrutiny.
  • Defence: Strategic relations may be strained, affecting high-tech transfers.
  • Startups: New tech collaborations might slow down due to deteriorating relations.
• Reasons for U.S. Tariff Imposition:
  • Allegations of India purchasing large volumes of Russian oil.
  • High Indian tariffs and non-tariff barriers limiting U.S. goods access.
  • Concerns over India’s defense and energy cooperation with Russia.
• India’s Stance:
  • India argues that its oil purchases from Russia were necessary due to supply disruptions from traditional sources.
  • The U.S. previously encouraged these imports to stabilize global markets.
  • India points out that Western nations continue to trade with Russia in various sectors.

This situation is a critical test for India's balancing act between maintaining strategic autonomy and navigating economic pragmatism. As global economic nationalism rises, India must carefully assert its right to energy security while preserving essential trade relationships. A multi-faceted approach, including bilateral negotiations and diversification of trade partnerships, will be crucial moving forward.

GS2/International Relations

Sahel Region and Russia's Influence

Why in News?

Recently, Russia has strengthened its presence in the Sahel region of West Africa by signing a significant nuclear agreement with Niger. This move highlights the geopolitical interests of Russia in this strategically important area.

Key Takeaways

• The Sahel is a semi-arid region situated in western and north-central Africa.
• It spans approximately 5,000 kilometers, extending from Africa’s Atlantic Coast to the Red Sea.
• The region serves as a transitional zone between the arid Sahara desert to the north and the humid savannas to the south.
• Countries within the Sahel include Senegal, Mauritania, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Nigeria, Chad, Sudan, and Eritrea.

Additional Details

• Vegetation:The Sahel is characterized by a semi-arid steppe ecosystem, primarily featuring dry grasslands. The vegetation is predominantly of the savanna type, with limited continuous cover, consisting of:
  • Low-growing grasses
  • Thorny shrubs
  • Scattered acacia and baobab trees
• Challenges: Since gaining independence in the 1960s, the Sahel has faced challenges such as:
  • Violent extremism linked to weak governance and economic decline
  • Adverse effects of climate change exacerbating living conditions
• The Sahel serves as a crucial transit hub for migrants traveling from sub-Saharan Africa towards northern coastal states and further into Europe.

In summary, the Sahel region remains a focal point for geopolitical interests and humanitarian challenges, making it an area of significant concern for international relations and security.

GS2/International Relations

Amid the Disruptions Unleashed by US President Trump, Should India Rethink Its Engagement with China?

Why in News?

The dynamics of the India-China relationship have gained renewed attention following the recent visit of Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Yi to India. This visit occurs amidst the shifting geopolitical landscape influenced by former US President Donald Trump’s erratic policies, particularly regarding US-China relations, and increasing scrutiny over India’s oil purchases from Russia. The discussions between the two nations led to a 10-point understanding aimed at improving cooperation, but underlying tensions remain unresolved, particularly in Ladakh and due to China’s support for Pakistan.

Key Takeaways

• Signs of a cautious thaw in India-China relations post-Galwan clashes.
• Unresolved border tensions and persistent mistrust complicate diplomatic outreach.
• India's security concerns are heightened by the China-Pakistan axis and economic dependencies.

Current State of India-China Relationship

• A Cautious Thaw: Recent engagements, including a possible Modi-Xi meeting at the SCO summit, indicate a willingness to ease tensions.
• Unfinished Border Business: Troop patrolling restrictions in Ladakh continue, and discussions on de-escalation have seen limited progress.
• Persistent Trust Deficit: India's concerns over China's military ties with Pakistan and economic leverage remain significant hurdles.

China-Pakistan Axis and India's Security Concerns

• Operation Sindoor 2025: Enhanced military support from China to Pakistan raises alarms for India.
• Strategic Consequences: The growing military cooperation complicates India's security landscape, creating a two-front challenge.

Trade Dependence Shaping Geopolitical Weakness

• Weaponisation of Dependencies: China has restricted exports of critical supplies to India, signaling potential leverage.
• Hydropower Concerns: Chinese dam projects threaten India's interests regarding water resources.

Can Tactical Outreach Substitute for Structural Resolution?

• Wang Yi's Visit: Resulted in a 10-point understanding but lacked significant concessions on key issues for India.
• India's Position: Prime Minister Modi emphasizes the need for stable relations grounded in realism.

Why Outright Conflict Remains Unlikely

• Geographical Constraints: The Himalayas present significant logistical challenges for a sustained military conflict.
• China's Strategic Calculus: Beijing has historically avoided conflicts to focus on economic growth.
• Cost of Conflict: War with India could jeopardize China's global ambitions and economic goals.

The Limits of Aligning with China Against the US

• US Factor: Trump's unpredictable China policy impacts India's geopolitical strategy.
• MEA Clarification: India reaffirmed its One-China policy, signaling cautious diplomatic navigation.

Way Forward

• Strengthen Border Posture: Enhance infrastructure and surveillance along the Line of Actual Control (LAC).
• Diversify Dependencies: Invest in domestic production of critical minerals and technologies.
• Engage but Verify: Maintain dialogue while ensuring outcomes are measurable.
• Diplomatic Balancing: Pursue strategic autonomy while engaging in multilateral frameworks like QUAD and SCO.
• Water Security Mechanisms: Advocate for institutionalized frameworks for water-sharing on the Brahmaputra.

The India-China relationship is at a critical juncture. Although recent diplomatic outreach hints at potential engagement, the entrenched mistrust and complex security challenges dictate a cautious approach. India's focus should remain on pragmatic diplomacy that neither escalates tensions nor fosters unrealistic expectations of a reset in relations.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2017] "China is using its economic relations and positive trade surplus as a tool to develop potential military power status in Asia." This statement highlights the impact of China's economic leverage on India, particularly through initiatives like the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), which enhances military collaboration and intensifies security challenges for India.

Mapping Microthemes

• GS Paper II (IR): India-China relations, India-US-China triangle, border disputes, strategic autonomy.
• GS Paper III (Security): Two-front challenge, defence preparedness, technology denial regimes.
• GS Paper IV (Ethics): Realpolitik vs idealism in foreign policy and diplomacy.

GS2/International Relations

Africa is challenging China’s mining hegemony

Why is this News?

For twenty years, China has dominated Africa's mining sector, securing extensive interests in cobalt, lithium, copper, and iron ore. However, African governments and civil society are now challenging the lack of transparency in contracts, environmental harm, and the absence of local value addition. The previous model of exchanging raw resources for infrastructure is shifting towards demands for local processing, transparency, and economic independence.

Importance

 For the first time in many years, China's undisputed control over African mining is diminishing. Countries such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Namibia, and Zimbabwe are renegotiating agreements, prohibiting raw mineral exports, and holding Chinese companies responsible for environmental and labor infractions. 

China’s Long-standing Dominance in Africa’s Mining

• Control over critical minerals: The DRC is responsible for 80% of the world's cobalt, and China manages approximately 80% of that output through agreements like Sicomines. 
• Infrastructure-for-resources model: Chinese companies traded infrastructure development for mining rights, but the local benefits have been minimal. 
• Drivers of the Pushback Against Chinese Projects
• Civil society pressure: Organizations such as Congo Is Not for Sale have highlighted the $132 million revenue loss in 2024 due to lax agreements with Chinese firms. 
• Market-linked risks: Contracts that are linked to commodity prices can leave nations vulnerable, especially during market downturns. 
• Government renegotiations: The DRC is increasing its stake in a joint venture with Sinohydro and China Railway Group from 32% to 70%, reflecting a shift towards greater local control. 

African Nations Taking Assertive Measures

• DRC: The government cancelled the sale of Chemaf Resources to China’s Norin Mining after opposition from state miner Gecamines. 
• Namibia: Allegations of a $50 million bribe by Xinfeng Investments and failure to deliver promised processing facilities have raised concerns. 
• Zimbabwe: The Huayou Cobalt lithium plant, valued at $300 million, may not provide local benefits and could channel resources back to China without proper safeguards. 

Environmental and Social Concerns from Chinese Mining

• Pollution incidents: An acid spill in Zambia contaminated the Kafue River, raising alarms about environmental safety. 
• Biodiversity protection:. coal permit for Hwange National Park was blocked due to ecological concerns. 
• Community and heritage impacts: The Lobé-Kribi Iron Ore Project in Cameroon has faced opposition from NGOs over potential health and cultural threats to local communities. 

Policy Shifts for Economic Sovereignty

• Export bans: Zimbabwe and Namibia have implemented bans on unprocessed lithium exports to encourage local processing and value addition. 
• Retention of value: Policies aimed at strengthening domestic processing are being introduced, although there is a risk of elite capture without comprehensive reforms. 

Conclusion

While China remains Africa’s largest mining partner, African nations are progressively asserting control through renegotiations, environmental enforcement, and a focus on value addition. If these trends continue, Africa could transition from being merely a supplier of raw materials to a key player in global supply chains, particularly in the green economy.

GS2/International Relations

Nepal Officially Joins IBCA

Why in News?

Nepal has officially joined the International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA), a global initiative led by India aimed at protecting seven species of big cats.

Key Takeaways

• Nepal's membership enhances the collaborative efforts to conserve big cat species.
• The IBCA focuses on multiple aspects of big cat conservation, including habitat protection and conflict mitigation.

Additional Details

• International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA): A multi-country, multi-agency coalition involving 95 countries that aims to conserve big cats and their habitats, launched in April 2023 during Project Tiger’s 50th anniversary.
• Conservation Scope: The alliance works to protect seven big cat species: tiger, lion, leopard, snow leopard, cheetah, jaguar, and puma.
• Functions: The IBCA operates through advocacy, knowledge-sharing, promoting eco-tourism, and mobilizing resources.
• Conflict Mitigation: The alliance aims to reduce human-wildlife conflict and restore degraded habitats.
• Governance Structure: Managed by a General Assembly, an elected Council, and a Secretariat led by a Secretary-General with its headquarters in India.
• Global Participation: Members include countries from Asia, Africa, the Americas, and Europe, such as India, China, and Kenya.
• India's Role: India is a biodiversity hub, hosting five of the seven big cat species and contributing significantly to global conservation efforts.
• Funding: The Indian government has committed ₹150 crore for the period 2023-2028 to support the initiative.

This collaboration marks a significant step in international wildlife conservation, showcasing the commitment of participating nations to protect big cats and their ecosystems.

UPSC 2024

Consider the following statements:

• 1. Lions do not have a particular breeding season.
• 2. Unlike most other big cats, cheetahs do not roar.
• 3. Unlike male lions, male leopards do not proclaim their territory by scent marking.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

• (a) 1 and 2 only
• (b) 2 and 3 only
• (c) 1 and 3 only
• (d) 1, 2, and 3

GS2/International Relations

Exercise Maitree: 14th Edition

Why in News?

The 14th edition of Exercise Maitree, a joint military exercise between India and Thailand, is set to take place in Umroi, Meghalaya, from September 1 to 14, 2025. This exercise marks a significant return to India after a five-year hiatus.

Key Takeaways

• The exercise will focus on enhancing joint operational capabilities between the Indian and Thai armies.
• This edition emphasizes counter-terrorism operations in semi-urban terrain.
• The last Maitree exercise was conducted in Tak Province, Thailand, with equal troop deployment from both nations.

Additional Details

• Joint Military Exercise: Exercise Maitree is designed to facilitate the exchange of best practices in tactics, techniques, and procedures for conducting joint operations.
• Significance: This edition is notable as it signifies the return of the exercise to Indian soil after five years, further enhancing bilateral military cooperation.
• Previous Edition: The last Maitree exercise involved the deployment of 76 soldiers from both sides, including India's Ladakh Scouts and Thailand's 1st Battalion of the 14th Infantry Regiment.

Overall, Exercise Maitree serves as a crucial platform for fostering collaboration between India and Thailand in military operations, particularly in counter-terrorism efforts.

GS2/International Relations

Integrated Food Security Phase Classification

Why in News?

A recent analysis from the Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC) has revealed that over half a million individuals in Gaza are experiencing famine, characterized by widespread starvation, destitution, and preventable deaths.

Key Takeaways

• The IPC is a globally recognized system for assessing the severity of hunger crises.
• It is supported by 19 major humanitarian organizations and regional bodies.
• The IPC classifies food insecurity on a five-phase scale, with Phase 5 indicating famine.

Additional Details

• Famine Determination:For an area to be classified as experiencing famine, the following criteria must be met:
  • At least 20% of the population must be suffering from extreme food shortages.
  • One in three children must be acutely malnourished.
  • Two out of every 10,000 people must be dying daily from starvation, malnutrition, or disease.
• The IPC does not formally declare famine but provides critical analysis to assist governments and organizations in making declarations.
• The data used by the IPC is sourced from the World Food Programme and other relief organizations, ensuring comprehensive and accurate assessment.
• The IPC's protocols are standardized across three individual scales: IPC Acute Food Insecurity, IPC Chronic Food Insecurity, and IPC Acute Malnutrition.

This alarming situation underscores the need for immediate action to address food security challenges and prevent further humanitarian crises in affected regions.

GS2/International Relations

US-Russia Alaska Summit - Fallout and Strategic Concerns

Why in News?

The recent summit between US President Donald Trump and Russian President Vladimir Putin has garnered significant attention, with Trump rating the meeting a "10 out of 10." This summit aimed to explore avenues for resolving the ongoing conflict in Ukraine, involving two of the world's leading nuclear powers and carrying implications for global security, NATO relations, and the dynamics of the Ukraine crisis.

Key Takeaways

• Despite being described as "extremely productive," no formal agreement was reached during the summit.
• Both leaders recognized progress on various issues, with discussions of a potential trilateral meeting involving the US, Russia, and Ukraine.
• The summit underscored the importance of US-Russia relations as the world's top nuclear powers, aiming to reduce hostilities and seek a peace settlement in Ukraine.
• Trump suggested a comprehensive peace agreement for Ukraine, urging Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy to negotiate with Russia.
• Putin supported Trump's views, expressing readiness to engage in dialogue to resolve the crisis and improve US-Russia relations.

India’s Strategic Dilemma Amid US-Russia Alaska Summit

• Trade tariffs and sanctions: The 25% tariff on Indian exports is part of the US's strategy to pressure Russia, with warnings of harsher sanctions against states supporting Moscow's war economy.
• India's refined petroleum exports sourced from Russian crude are under scrutiny, with claims that tariffs could affect purchasing decisions.
• Energy security vs. geopolitics: Since 2022, India has become a major buyer of discounted Russian crude, ensuring energy security but facing criticism from Western nations.
• The potential enforcement of tariffs may force India into a trade-off between maintaining energy affordability and sustaining export competitiveness.

Strategic Significance of the US-Russia Alaska Summit

• This summit illustrates how secondary powers like India are influenced by negotiations between major powers.
• It reveals the ongoing tension between energy security and foreign policy autonomy for India.
• India's reluctance to fully align with Western sanctions complicates its relationship with the US.
• For global politics, the summit reinforces great power politics in conflict resolution, though a broader Western consensus remains uncertain.
• It may affect NATO-Ukraine strategy and Europe's security architecture while indicating a potential recalibration of US-Russia relations.

Way Ahead for India

• Diplomatic tightrope: India must balance its ties with Russia (in defense and energy) against its strategic partnership with the US, particularly concerning the Indo-Pacific.
• Growing partnership: Strengthening ties with the US and Europe in areas like trade and technology is essential for India.
• Ray of hope: There is optimism that Trump may postpone or cancel tariffs pending peace talks regarding Ukraine.

The summit represents a tentative yet crucial step towards peace negotiations in Ukraine. While progress was acknowledged, the absence of concrete outcomes highlights the fragility of diplomatic efforts in conflict resolution. While the summit may have provided Putin with symbolic legitimacy, it left India facing strategic and economic uncertainties. Moving forward, New Delhi must adeptly navigate the challenge of securing energy supplies from Russia while mitigating the impact of US secondary tariffs, all within the context of an evolving global order influenced by the Ukraine conflict.

GS2/International Relations

Super Garuda Shield 2025

Why in News?

Indonesia and the United States have recently initiated the annual joint military exercise called Super Garuda Shield 2025, marking a significant event in defense cooperation among partner nations.

Key Takeaways

• The Super Garuda Shield is a large-scale, multinational military exercise aimed at enhancing interoperability and mutual trust among armed forces.
• Originally started in 2006 as a bilateral training exchange between the United States and Indonesia, it expanded in 2022 to include additional partner nations.
• The exercise is held annually in Jakarta, Indonesia, and the 2025 edition will feature the largest number of participants to date, with over 4,100 Indonesian and 1,300 American troops.

Additional Details

• Participating Nations: This year, the exercise includes Australia, Brazil, Canada, France, Germany, Indonesia, Japan, the Netherlands, New Zealand, the Republic of Singapore, South Korea, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
• Observing Nations: Cambodia, India, and Papua New Guinea will be observing the exercise, highlighting its multinational significance.
• Exercise Activities: The exercise will incorporate various training events such as engineering construction, staff training exercises, airborne operations, jungle training, air assault operations, amphibious exercises, large field training exercises, and combined arms live fire exercises, including a High Mobility Artillery Rocket System (HIMARS) live fire exercise.

This joint exercise underscores the growing importance of defense collaboration in the Indo-Pacific region, enhancing collective security and readiness among participating nations.

GS2/International Relations

Canada Will Match U.S. Exemptions to Punishing Tariffs, Says Canadian Official

Why in News?

Canada has opted to eliminate retaliatory tariffs and align its exemptions on goods with those of the United States under the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA). This move is significant because it helps maintain tariff-free trade for more than 85% of Canada-U.S. commerce, despite ongoing sector-specific tariffs, such as the 50% duties on steel and aluminum, which continue to impact Canadian industries. Given that over 75% of Canada’s exports are directed to the U.S., this development is vital for Canada’s economic stability.

Key Takeaways

• Canada is mirroring U.S. tariff exemptions, indicating a shift from previous retaliatory measures.
• This policy reversal is significant as it marks the first time Canada is rolling back tariffs to align with U.S. exemptions under USMCA.
• Preservation of tariff-free trade is crucial for Canada, given its heavy trade dependence on the U.S.

Additional Details

• USMCA Pact: Established in 2020, the USMCA replaced NAFTA and offers preferential treatment to Canadian and Mexican goods entering the U.S.
• Carve-out Mechanism: Goods included in this agreement are protected from punitive tariffs, ensuring continued market access.
• Review Timeline: The USMCA agreement will undergo a review in 2026, making it crucial for Canada to maintain good trade relations.
• Benefits for Canada: Canadian goods enjoy protection from most punitive tariffs, ensuring export stability with 75% of exports directed to the U.S.
• Challenges Ahead: Despite exemptions, Canada faces sector-specific U.S. tariffs and potential renegotiation risks that could destabilize its economy.

Canada's strategy to align its tariffs with U.S. exemptions under the USMCA illustrates a blend of pragmatism and the challenges posed by economic dependence. While this agreement facilitates tariff-free trade for the majority of goods, the existence of sector-specific tariffs and the possibility of renegotiation underscore the precarious nature of North American trade relations. Canada must navigate the complex balance between maintaining its sovereignty and addressing its economic reliance on the U.S., a situation that is increasingly pertinent in the current global climate of protectionism.

GS2/International Relations

Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC) and Famine Declaration

Why in News?

The United Nations has officially announced a famine in Gaza, following an assessment by the Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC) panel.

Key Takeaways

• The IPC is a global tool used to assess and classify food insecurity.
• The recent famine declaration in Gaza highlights the ongoing food crisis.

Additional Details

• What is IPC: The Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC) is a standard method for assessing the severity of food insecurity, established in 2004 during the Somalia food crisis by the Famine Early Warning Systems Network (FEWS NET) and its partners.
• Coordination: The IPC is coordinated by the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and aims to support early warnings, evidence-based decision-making, and coordinated responses from governments, UN agencies, NGOs, and donors.
• Partnership Model: The IPC incorporates collaboration among UN bodies, NGOs, academic institutions, and national governments.
• Five-Phase Classification System:
  • Phase 1: Minimal
  • Phase 2: Stressed
  • Phase 3: Crisis
  • Phase 4: Emergency
  • Phase 5: Catastrophe/Famine
• Methodology: The IPC relies on evidence from food access, livelihoods, nutrition, and mortality, requiring technical consensus among analysts to ensure transparency and accuracy. It enables real-time assessments and 6-month forecasts to facilitate timely actions.
• Definition of Famine:Famine is classified as IPC Phase 5, the highest level of food insecurity, which is declared when:
  • At least 20% of households face extreme food gaps.
  • 30% of children under five suffer from acute malnutrition (wasting).
  • The death rate is 2 adults or 4 children per 10,000 people per day.
• Purpose of Declaration: The declaration aims to mobilize international aid and emergency operations, trigger food, health, and logistics support, and raise global awareness and funding for urgent interventions.
• Past Declarations: Notable famine declarations have occurred in Somalia (2011), South Sudan (2017, 2020), and Darfur, Sudan (2024).

This current crisis emphasizes the importance of international cooperation and timely responses to prevent further deterioration of food security in affected regions.

GS2/International Relations

Lipulekh Pass: Current Developments

Why in News?

India has formally dismissed Nepal's concerns regarding the resumption of border trade with China through the Lipulekh Pass located in Uttarakhand.

Key Takeaways

• The Lipulekh Pass is a high-altitude Himalayan pass situated at approximately 17,000 feet.
• This pass serves as a vital connection between Uttarakhand's Kumaon region and Taklakot in Tibet.
• It is also the shortest route for pilgrims traveling to the Kailash Mansarovar.
• Historically significant as a trade route between India and China since 1954, trade was interrupted during the COVID-19 pandemic but has since resumed.
• The pass holds strategic importance for India due to its location near the borders of India, China, and Nepal.

Additional Details

• Limpiyadhura–Lipulekh–Kalapani Dispute: This dispute originates from the 1815 Treaty of Sugauli, which established Nepal's western boundary at the Kali (Mahakali) River.
• India’s Position: India asserts that the Kali River's source is near Lipulekh, thus claiming both Lipulekh and Kalapani as part of its territory.
• Nepal’s Position: Nepal contends that the Kali River begins at a different location, extending its claim to include Lipulekh and Kalapani.
• Disputed Area: Approximately 370 square kilometers of land, which has been under Indian administration since the 19th century, is contested.
• In 2020, Nepal released a new map declaring Limpiyadhura, Lipulekh, and Kalapani as its territory, which India rejected due to the lack of historical evidence supporting Nepal's claims.

The ongoing border disputes between India and Nepal are significant, as both countries share a 1,770 km open border across five Indian states: Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, and Sikkim. These disputes often create diplomatic tensions, despite the historically close relations between the two nations.

In the context of historical border agreements and administrative practices, India emphasizes its long-standing claims, while Nepal seeks constitutional recognition of its territorial assertions.

UPSC 2007 Question: Which one of the following Himalayan passes was reopened around the middle of the year 2006 to facilitate trade between India and China?

• (a) Chang La
• (b) Jara La
• (c) Nathu La*
• (d) Shipki La

GS2/International Relations

An Overview of the India-Japan Relationship

Why in News?

Prime Minister Modi is set to visit Japan on August 29-30, 2025, for the 15th India-Japan Annual Summit, marking his first summit with Prime Minister Shigeru Ishiba. This visit will be PM Modi's eighth to Japan, with his last attendance at the Annual Summit in 2018, although he has participated in other multilateral events in Japan, like the G20 Osaka in 2019 and G7 Hiroshima in 2023. Following the summit, he will proceed to China for the Heads of State Council meeting of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) in Tianjin.

Key Takeaways

• Strengthened ties through various strategic initiatives.
• Active collaboration in defence, trade, and cultural exchanges.
• Increasing focus on shared regional security and infrastructure development.

Additional Details

• India–Japan Ties: The relationship has evolved into one of India's oldest mechanisms for Annual Summits, alongside Russia, with progressive elevation to a Global Partnership in 2000, and further to a Special Strategic and Global Partnership by 2014.
• Indo-Pacific Cooperation: India's Act East Policy and Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative align with Japan's Free and Open Indo-Pacific (FOIP) vision, emphasizing connectivity and development assistance.
• Multilateral Cooperation: Both nations collaborate in various platforms such as the Quad, International Solar Alliance (ISA), and Supply Chain Resilience Initiative (SCRI), underlining their roles as leading democracies.
• Defence and Security: Key agreements have fortified defence ties, including the Joint Declaration on Security Cooperation (2008), and regular joint exercises like Malabar and JIMEX enhance military collaboration.
• Trade and Investment: Bilateral trade reached $22.8 billion in 2023-24, with Japan being a major source of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in India.
• Development Cooperation: Japan has been India's largest ODA donor since 1958, providing significant support for infrastructure projects like the Mumbai–Ahmedabad High-Speed Rail.
• Cultural and Educational Ties: The Year of Tourism Exchange in 2023-24 and numerous academic partnerships highlight the growing cultural connections between the two nations.

As India navigates a complex geopolitical landscape, its partnership with Japan and other Indo-Pacific countries is poised to enhance strategic autonomy and foster collaborative growth.

GS2/International Relations

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)

Why in News?

The head of the UN's nuclear watchdog, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), announced that a team of inspectors has returned to Iran, highlighting ongoing international concerns regarding nuclear energy and its potential military applications.

Key Takeaways

• The IAEA is the leading global organization for nuclear scientific and technical cooperation.
• It operates under a statute approved on October 23, 1956, and became effective on July 29, 1957.
• As an autonomous entity within the United Nations, the IAEA reports to both the UN General Assembly and the UN Security Council.
• The agency's main objective is to prevent the diversion of nuclear energy for weapons purposes.

Additional Details

• Member Countries: The IAEA currently has 180 member states, enhancing its international credibility and mandate.
• Institutional Structure:
  • General Conference: This assembly of all member states meets annually to approve budgets and set policies.
  • Board of Governors: Composed of 35 members, it meets approximately five times a year to oversee safeguards agreements and appoint the Director General.
  • Secretariat: Led by the Director General, it is responsible for the agency's daily operations.
• Functions of the IAEA:The agency ensures nuclear technology is used solely for peaceful purposes through comprehensive safeguards, including:
  • Monitoring activities
  • Conducting on-site inspections
  • Information analysis
  • Employing various techniques to verify peaceful use of nuclear energy.
• Headquarters: The IAEA is headquartered in Vienna, Austria.

In summary, the IAEA plays a crucial role in promoting safe and peaceful use of nuclear technology, maintaining international peace and security regarding nuclear materials.