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What types of learning do not rely on forming associations among stimuli and events?- a)Perceptual learning, spatial learning and discrimination learning
- b)Imprinting, aversive conditioning and instrumental learning
- c)Classroom learning, street-wise learning and common sense
- d)Reinforcement, punishment and habituation
- e)(a), (b) and (c)
Correct answer is option 'A'. Can you explain this answer?
What types of learning do not rely on forming associations among stimuli and events?
a)
Perceptual learning, spatial learning and discrimination learning
b)
Imprinting, aversive conditioning and instrumental learning
c)
Classroom learning, street-wise learning and common sense
d)
Reinforcement, punishment and habituation
e)
(a), (b) and (c)
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Kiran Mehta answered |
Perceptual, spatial and discrimination learning cannot be explained by association formation. Imprinting and habituation do represent types of perceptual learning that are non-associative. The remaining terms are distracters that do not address the question.
Which of the following does NOT apply to spatial learning in the rat? - a)Rats master spatial tasks much more easily than typical configural learning tasks.
- b)Spatial learning operates according to principles identical to those that underlie classical and instrumental conditioning procedures.
- c)Exposure to an environment can allow the animal to form a cognitive map of that environment.
- d)The animal is then able to navigate because it knows its own position with respect to its internal representation of the environment.
Correct answer is option 'B'. Can you explain this answer?
Which of the following does NOT apply to spatial learning in the rat?
a)
Rats master spatial tasks much more easily than typical configural learning tasks.
b)
Spatial learning operates according to principles identical to those that underlie classical and instrumental conditioning procedures.
c)
Exposure to an environment can allow the animal to form a cognitive map of that environment.
d)
The animal is then able to navigate because it knows its own position with respect to its internal representation of the environment.
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Arnab Gupta answered |
Understanding Spatial Learning in Rats
Spatial learning in rats is a fascinating area of study that highlights distinct cognitive processes. Among the options provided, option 'B' is correct as it does not apply to spatial learning. Here’s a closer look at why this is the case.
Differences from Conditioning Procedures
- Spatial learning is not governed by the same principles as classical and instrumental conditioning.
- While conditioning relies on reinforcement and association, spatial learning involves the formation of cognitive maps and understanding of spatial relationships.
Mastery of Spatial Tasks
- Rats are adept at spatial tasks, which they perform more easily than typical configural learning tasks.
- They can navigate complex environments using cues and landmarks.
Cognitive Mapping
- Exposure to an environment allows rats to create a cognitive map.
- This mental representation helps them to understand the layout of their surroundings.
Navigation and Positioning
- With a cognitive map, rats can navigate effectively.
- They determine their position in relation to their environment, which enhances their ability to find food, shelter, and mates.
Conclusion
In summary, while spatial learning incorporates elements of memory and environmental interaction, it operates under distinct cognitive mechanisms that set it apart from classical and instrumental conditioning. Understanding these differences is crucial in the study of animal cognition and learning processes.
Spatial learning in rats is a fascinating area of study that highlights distinct cognitive processes. Among the options provided, option 'B' is correct as it does not apply to spatial learning. Here’s a closer look at why this is the case.
Differences from Conditioning Procedures
- Spatial learning is not governed by the same principles as classical and instrumental conditioning.
- While conditioning relies on reinforcement and association, spatial learning involves the formation of cognitive maps and understanding of spatial relationships.
Mastery of Spatial Tasks
- Rats are adept at spatial tasks, which they perform more easily than typical configural learning tasks.
- They can navigate complex environments using cues and landmarks.
Cognitive Mapping
- Exposure to an environment allows rats to create a cognitive map.
- This mental representation helps them to understand the layout of their surroundings.
Navigation and Positioning
- With a cognitive map, rats can navigate effectively.
- They determine their position in relation to their environment, which enhances their ability to find food, shelter, and mates.
Conclusion
In summary, while spatial learning incorporates elements of memory and environmental interaction, it operates under distinct cognitive mechanisms that set it apart from classical and instrumental conditioning. Understanding these differences is crucial in the study of animal cognition and learning processes.
Which of the following statements applies to instrumental learning? - a)Instrumental learning is the process by which an animal learns about the relationship between its behaviour and the consequences of that behaviour.
- b)Instrumentally trained responses are not entirely elicited by identifiable stimuli.
- c)Instrumental learning allows the animal to control the occurrence of environmental events.
- d)All of the above.
Correct answer is option 'D'. Can you explain this answer?
Which of the following statements applies to instrumental learning?
a)
Instrumental learning is the process by which an animal learns about the relationship between its behaviour and the consequences of that behaviour.
b)
Instrumentally trained responses are not entirely elicited by identifiable stimuli.
c)
Instrumental learning allows the animal to control the occurrence of environmental events.
d)
All of the above.
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|
Varun Chauhan answered |
Understanding Instrumental Learning
Instrumental learning, also known as operant conditioning, is a fundamental concept in behavioral psychology. It highlights how behaviors are influenced by their consequences, making it a crucial aspect of learning in both animals and humans.
Key Points of Instrumental Learning
- Behavior-Consequences Relationship:
Instrumental learning is primarily about understanding the relationship between an organism's behavior and the consequences that follow. When a behavior leads to a positive outcome, the likelihood of that behavior being repeated increases.
- Responses Not Elicited by Identifiable Stimuli:
Unlike classical conditioning, where responses are triggered by specific stimuli, instrumental learning involves voluntary actions. The responses are not merely reactions to stimuli but are instead motivated by the anticipated consequences.
- Control Over Environmental Events:
One of the key aspects of instrumental learning is that it empowers the organism to exert control over its environment. By learning which behaviors lead to desirable outcomes (like food or shelter), the organism can influence its own circumstances.
Conclusion
Considering these points, all statements accurately reflect the nature of instrumental learning. It encompasses the understanding of behavior-consequence relationships, the voluntary nature of responses, and the control animals can exert over their environments. Thus, the correct answer is indeed option 'D', as it encapsulates the comprehensive nature of instrumental learning.
Instrumental learning, also known as operant conditioning, is a fundamental concept in behavioral psychology. It highlights how behaviors are influenced by their consequences, making it a crucial aspect of learning in both animals and humans.
Key Points of Instrumental Learning
- Behavior-Consequences Relationship:
Instrumental learning is primarily about understanding the relationship between an organism's behavior and the consequences that follow. When a behavior leads to a positive outcome, the likelihood of that behavior being repeated increases.
- Responses Not Elicited by Identifiable Stimuli:
Unlike classical conditioning, where responses are triggered by specific stimuli, instrumental learning involves voluntary actions. The responses are not merely reactions to stimuli but are instead motivated by the anticipated consequences.
- Control Over Environmental Events:
One of the key aspects of instrumental learning is that it empowers the organism to exert control over its environment. By learning which behaviors lead to desirable outcomes (like food or shelter), the organism can influence its own circumstances.
Conclusion
Considering these points, all statements accurately reflect the nature of instrumental learning. It encompasses the understanding of behavior-consequence relationships, the voluntary nature of responses, and the control animals can exert over their environments. Thus, the correct answer is indeed option 'D', as it encapsulates the comprehensive nature of instrumental learning.
Which of the following statements about Pavlov’s dogs is FALSE?- a)Pavlov’s standard procedure involved the following: a dog was given access to food, and each presentation was accompanied (usually slightly preceded) by the occurrence of a neutral event, such as a flashing light.
- b)After several training trials (pairings of light and food), the dog would salivate at the flash of light, before any food had appeared.
- c)Salivation at the presentation of food is called a conditioned response.
- d)The event that evokes the conditioned response is referred to as a conditioned stimulus.
Correct answer is option 'B'. Can you explain this answer?
Which of the following statements about Pavlov’s dogs is FALSE?
a)
Pavlov’s standard procedure involved the following: a dog was given access to food, and each presentation was accompanied (usually slightly preceded) by the occurrence of a neutral event, such as a flashing light.
b)
After several training trials (pairings of light and food), the dog would salivate at the flash of light, before any food had appeared.
c)
Salivation at the presentation of food is called a conditioned response.
d)
The event that evokes the conditioned response is referred to as a conditioned stimulus.
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Dhruba Malik answered |
Is incomplete. Could you please provide the complete statements?
Which THREE of the following are true regarding habituation and dishabituation ? - Habituation involves a gradual reduction in the magnitude of the response to repeated presentation of a stimulus.
- In dishabituation, the response returns when a salient extraneous stimulus is presented just before a trial with the habituated stimulus.
- Habituation is caused by sensory-motor fatigue.
- Habituation occurs as a consequence of the repeated presentation of a single event.
- a)1, 2 & 3
- b)2, 3 & 4
- c)1, 2 & 4
Correct answer is option 'C'. Can you explain this answer?
Which THREE of the following are true regarding habituation and dishabituation ?
- Habituation involves a gradual reduction in the magnitude of the response to repeated presentation of a stimulus.
- In dishabituation, the response returns when a salient extraneous stimulus is presented just before a trial with the habituated stimulus.
- Habituation is caused by sensory-motor fatigue.
- Habituation occurs as a consequence of the repeated presentation of a single event.
a)
1, 2 & 3
b)
2, 3 & 4
c)
1, 2 & 4
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Kiran Mehta answered |
Repeated presentation of a stimulus that elicits a particular UR will result in habituation – a gradual reduction in the magnitude of the response. A good instance in vertebrates is the startle response produced by a sudden loud noise, a response that reliably declines if the noise is regularly repeated. In the phenomenon of dishabituation, the response returns when a salient extraneous stimulus (e.g. a flashing light) is presented just before a trial with the habituated noise.
The observation that the response can be easily restored in this way shows that habituation is not solely a matter of sensory or motor fatigue – it is a genuine case of learning. And since habituation occurs as a consequence of the presentation of a single event, it is difficult to interpret this form of learning in terms of association formation. The most likely explanation, at least for simple instances of the phenomenon, is that changes occur in the neuronal pathway connecting the S and R that make transmission of nervous impulses less likely to occur. A series of elegant neurophysiological studies by Kandel and colleagues using the marine mollusc Aplysia has gone some way towards establishing which synaptic connection loses effectiveness during habituation, and the biochemical basis of this loss. (For this work Kandel was awarded the Nobel prize for medicine.)
The observation that the response can be easily restored in this way shows that habituation is not solely a matter of sensory or motor fatigue – it is a genuine case of learning. And since habituation occurs as a consequence of the presentation of a single event, it is difficult to interpret this form of learning in terms of association formation. The most likely explanation, at least for simple instances of the phenomenon, is that changes occur in the neuronal pathway connecting the S and R that make transmission of nervous impulses less likely to occur. A series of elegant neurophysiological studies by Kandel and colleagues using the marine mollusc Aplysia has gone some way towards establishing which synaptic connection loses effectiveness during habituation, and the biochemical basis of this loss. (For this work Kandel was awarded the Nobel prize for medicine.)
If you intended to stop at the corner shop on the way home from school, but instead took your usual path from school to your home and missed the corner shop, then your behaviour has been controlled by which type of learning? - a)Response-outcome association
- b)Stimulus-response association
- c)Selective response learning
- d)Instrumental learning
- e)Stimulus-habit association
Correct answer is option 'B'. Can you explain this answer?
If you intended to stop at the corner shop on the way home from school, but instead took your usual path from school to your home and missed the corner shop, then your behaviour has been controlled by which type of learning?
a)
Response-outcome association
b)
Stimulus-response association
c)
Selective response learning
d)
Instrumental learning
e)
Stimulus-habit association
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Sanskriti Deshpande answered |
Understanding Stimulus-Response Association
In the context of your behavior while walking home from school, the type of learning that primarily influenced your actions is known as stimulus-response association. Here’s a detailed breakdown of this concept:
Definition of Stimulus-Response Association
- This type of learning occurs when a specific stimulus (like the sight of your school) consistently leads to a particular response (taking the usual path home).
- Over time, this relationship strengthens, making the response almost automatic when the stimulus is present.
Example in Your Scenario
- Your routine of walking home from school has created a strong association between the stimulus (the school and the path you usually take) and the response (walking straight home).
- Since you have repeatedly followed this path, your brain has formed a habitual response to the familiar stimulus of your school, overriding your intention to stop at the corner shop.
Impact of Habitual Learning
- This habitual learning is often unconscious, meaning you may not even be aware of why you missed the shop; it’s simply the result of your brain relying on established patterns.
- As a result, when faced with the familiar stimuli of your environment, your behaviors are automatically triggered, leading you to act in a way that aligns with past experiences rather than new intentions.
In summary, the missed stop at the corner shop resulted from a stimulus-response association, where your established route home became the dominant behavior due to the strength of the learned association.
In the context of your behavior while walking home from school, the type of learning that primarily influenced your actions is known as stimulus-response association. Here’s a detailed breakdown of this concept:
Definition of Stimulus-Response Association
- This type of learning occurs when a specific stimulus (like the sight of your school) consistently leads to a particular response (taking the usual path home).
- Over time, this relationship strengthens, making the response almost automatic when the stimulus is present.
Example in Your Scenario
- Your routine of walking home from school has created a strong association between the stimulus (the school and the path you usually take) and the response (walking straight home).
- Since you have repeatedly followed this path, your brain has formed a habitual response to the familiar stimulus of your school, overriding your intention to stop at the corner shop.
Impact of Habitual Learning
- This habitual learning is often unconscious, meaning you may not even be aware of why you missed the shop; it’s simply the result of your brain relying on established patterns.
- As a result, when faced with the familiar stimuli of your environment, your behaviors are automatically triggered, leading you to act in a way that aligns with past experiences rather than new intentions.
In summary, the missed stop at the corner shop resulted from a stimulus-response association, where your established route home became the dominant behavior due to the strength of the learned association.
Which of the following is accurate in relation to the law of effect? - a)The law of effect relates to Pavlov’s proposal that reward will strengthen the connection between the response that preceded it and any stimuli present when it is delivered.
- b)In modern terminology, Thorndike’s ‘satisfiers’ and ‘annoyers’ are called enforcers and punishers.
- c)In the law of effect, a stimulus–response (S–R) association is learned.
- d)It is generally thought that the likelihood of an animal responding in a particular way cannot be controlled by the consequence of that response.
Correct answer is option 'C'. Can you explain this answer?
Which of the following is accurate in relation to the law of effect?
a)
The law of effect relates to Pavlov’s proposal that reward will strengthen the connection between the response that preceded it and any stimuli present when it is delivered.
b)
In modern terminology, Thorndike’s ‘satisfiers’ and ‘annoyers’ are called enforcers and punishers.
c)
In the law of effect, a stimulus–response (S–R) association is learned.
d)
It is generally thought that the likelihood of an animal responding in a particular way cannot be controlled by the consequence of that response.
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Sarthak Joshi answered |
B) The law of effect states that behaviors that are followed by positive consequences are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors that are followed by negative consequences are less likely to be repeated.
Which TWO of the following statements are true of blocking? - The phenomenon of blocking provides an interesting and much-studied instance of failure to learn, in spite of contiguous presentations of the CS and the US.
- In a blocking experiment, animals receive training with what is termed a compound CS (Phase 2).
- The experimental group has first received a phase of training in which the US alone is conditioned (Phase 1).
- The experimental group shows no (or very little) evidence of learning about the CS that is presented in Phase 1.
- a)1 & 2
- b)2 & 3
- c)3 & 4
- d)1 & 3
Correct answer is option 'A'. Can you explain this answer?
Which TWO of the following statements are true of blocking?
- The phenomenon of blocking provides an interesting and much-studied instance of failure to learn, in spite of contiguous presentations of the CS and the US.
- In a blocking experiment, animals receive training with what is termed a compound CS (Phase 2).
- The experimental group has first received a phase of training in which the US alone is conditioned (Phase 1).
- The experimental group shows no (or very little) evidence of learning about the CS that is presented in Phase 1.
a)
1 & 2
b)
2 & 3
c)
3 & 4
d)
1 & 3
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Arun Yadav answered |
The phenomenon of blocking provides an interesting and much-studied instance of failure to learn, in spite of contiguous presentations of CS and US. In a blocking experiment, animals receive training with what is termed a compound CS (Phase 2) – in this example represented by the simultaneous presentation of a noise and a light followed by a shock reinforcer. However, the experimental group has first received a phase of training in which the noise alone is conditioned (Phase 1).
The performance of the control group of participants shows that training (Phase 2) with a compound CS is normally sufficient to establish associations between individual CS elements (noise, light) and the US (shock). So in this control group the light, when subsequently presented on its own, will evoke a CR. But the experimental group shows no (or very little) evidence of learning about the light in Phase 2. Although they have received light–US pairings, just as the control participants have, in Phase 2, the formation of the light–US association appears to have been blocked by initial training with the noise in Phase 1.
The performance of the control group of participants shows that training (Phase 2) with a compound CS is normally sufficient to establish associations between individual CS elements (noise, light) and the US (shock). So in this control group the light, when subsequently presented on its own, will evoke a CR. But the experimental group shows no (or very little) evidence of learning about the light in Phase 2. Although they have received light–US pairings, just as the control participants have, in Phase 2, the formation of the light–US association appears to have been blocked by initial training with the noise in Phase 1.
Learning is best defined as a process that involves: - a)Two stimuli being paired that produce a conditioned response over time
- b)An organism interacting with its environment, becoming changed by experience, and thereby modifying subsequent behaviours
- c)An organism interacting with its environment through autoshaping and conditioning
- d)An organism responding to its environment based on reinforcement or punishment for behaviours
- e)The effects of parents, teachers and peers
Correct answer is option 'B'. Can you explain this answer?
Learning is best defined as a process that involves:
a)
Two stimuli being paired that produce a conditioned response over time
b)
An organism interacting with its environment, becoming changed by experience, and thereby modifying subsequent behaviours
c)
An organism interacting with its environment through autoshaping and conditioning
d)
An organism responding to its environment based on reinforcement or punishment for behaviours
e)
The effects of parents, teachers and peers
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Dhruba Malik answered |
Definition of Learning:
Learning can be defined as the process through which an organism interacts with its environment, acquires knowledge or skills, and undergoes a change in behavior as a result of that interaction. It involves the acquisition, processing, and retention of information or experiences that influence subsequent behavior.
Explanation:
Learning is a complex process that occurs throughout our lives and is not limited to humans alone. Both animals and humans engage in learning, and it plays a crucial role in their survival, development, and adaptation to their environment.
Learning involves the following key components:
1. Organism-Environment Interaction:
Learning occurs when an organism interacts with its environment. This interaction can be physical, social, or cognitive in nature. It involves the organism receiving stimuli from the environment and responding to those stimuli. The environment provides the necessary inputs and experiences for learning to take place.
2. Change in Behavior:
Learning results in a change in behavior or a modification of existing behavior. This change can be observed through an organism's actions, responses, or reactions to different stimuli. Behavior can be modified or shaped through various learning processes, such as conditioning, reinforcement, or punishment.
3. Experience and Modification:
Learning is a process that occurs through experience. An organism learns by actively engaging with its environment, exploring, observing, and experiencing various situations. These experiences lead to the modification of behavior based on the outcomes or consequences of those experiences. This modification allows the organism to adapt and adjust its behavior to achieve desired results.
Conclusion:
In conclusion, learning is best defined as the process through which an organism interacts with its environment, becomes changed by experience, and modifies subsequent behavior as a result. It involves the acquisition of knowledge or skills through experiences and the subsequent modification of behavior based on those experiences. Learning is a lifelong process that is essential for survival, growth, and adaptation in both animals and humans.
Learning can be defined as the process through which an organism interacts with its environment, acquires knowledge or skills, and undergoes a change in behavior as a result of that interaction. It involves the acquisition, processing, and retention of information or experiences that influence subsequent behavior.
Explanation:
Learning is a complex process that occurs throughout our lives and is not limited to humans alone. Both animals and humans engage in learning, and it plays a crucial role in their survival, development, and adaptation to their environment.
Learning involves the following key components:
1. Organism-Environment Interaction:
Learning occurs when an organism interacts with its environment. This interaction can be physical, social, or cognitive in nature. It involves the organism receiving stimuli from the environment and responding to those stimuli. The environment provides the necessary inputs and experiences for learning to take place.
2. Change in Behavior:
Learning results in a change in behavior or a modification of existing behavior. This change can be observed through an organism's actions, responses, or reactions to different stimuli. Behavior can be modified or shaped through various learning processes, such as conditioning, reinforcement, or punishment.
3. Experience and Modification:
Learning is a process that occurs through experience. An organism learns by actively engaging with its environment, exploring, observing, and experiencing various situations. These experiences lead to the modification of behavior based on the outcomes or consequences of those experiences. This modification allows the organism to adapt and adjust its behavior to achieve desired results.
Conclusion:
In conclusion, learning is best defined as the process through which an organism interacts with its environment, becomes changed by experience, and modifies subsequent behavior as a result. It involves the acquisition of knowledge or skills through experiences and the subsequent modification of behavior based on those experiences. Learning is a lifelong process that is essential for survival, growth, and adaptation in both animals and humans.
The basic understanding of the relationship between unconditioned response (UR) and conditioned response (CR) includes which of the following ideas?- a)The UR and CR are not always the same response
- b)Organisms come to generally behave toward conditioned stimulus as they do unconditioned stimulus
- c)Stimulus substitution
- d)The UR and CR are always the same response
- e)(a), (b) and (c)
Correct answer is option 'E'. Can you explain this answer?
The basic understanding of the relationship between unconditioned response (UR) and conditioned response (CR) includes which of the following ideas?
a)
The UR and CR are not always the same response
b)
Organisms come to generally behave toward conditioned stimulus as they do unconditioned stimulus
c)
Stimulus substitution
d)
The UR and CR are always the same response
e)
(a), (b) and (c)
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Shruti Joshi answered |
Understanding the Relationship between UR and CR
Understanding the relationship between unconditioned response (UR) and conditioned response (CR) is essential in the field of classical conditioning. Here are the key ideas to consider:
The UR and CR are not always the same response
- The unconditioned response (UR) is an automatic, unlearned reaction to a stimulus.
- The conditioned response (CR) is a learned response that is elicited by a conditioned stimulus.
- While the UR and CR can be the same in some cases, they are not always identical. For example, a dog may salivate (UR) in response to the presentation of food (US), but after conditioning, it may also salivate (CR) in response to a bell ringing (CS).
Organisms come to generally behave toward conditioned stimulus as they do unconditioned stimulus
- Through the process of classical conditioning, organisms learn to associate a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus.
- Over time, organisms come to respond to the conditioned stimulus in a similar manner as they would to the unconditioned stimulus.
- This generalization allows organisms to predict and respond to potentially significant events in their environment.
Stimulus Substitution
- According to the stimulus substitution theory, the conditioned stimulus comes to elicit a response that is similar to, or a substitute for, the response elicited by the unconditioned stimulus.
- This theory suggests that the conditioned response is essentially a replacement for the unconditioned response, with the conditioned stimulus taking on the role of the unconditioned stimulus.
In conclusion, the relationship between UR and CR is complex, with the responses not always being the same, organisms generally behaving towards the conditioned stimulus as they do towards the unconditioned stimulus, and the concept of stimulus substitution playing a role in the conditioning process.
Understanding the relationship between unconditioned response (UR) and conditioned response (CR) is essential in the field of classical conditioning. Here are the key ideas to consider:
The UR and CR are not always the same response
- The unconditioned response (UR) is an automatic, unlearned reaction to a stimulus.
- The conditioned response (CR) is a learned response that is elicited by a conditioned stimulus.
- While the UR and CR can be the same in some cases, they are not always identical. For example, a dog may salivate (UR) in response to the presentation of food (US), but after conditioning, it may also salivate (CR) in response to a bell ringing (CS).
Organisms come to generally behave toward conditioned stimulus as they do unconditioned stimulus
- Through the process of classical conditioning, organisms learn to associate a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus.
- Over time, organisms come to respond to the conditioned stimulus in a similar manner as they would to the unconditioned stimulus.
- This generalization allows organisms to predict and respond to potentially significant events in their environment.
Stimulus Substitution
- According to the stimulus substitution theory, the conditioned stimulus comes to elicit a response that is similar to, or a substitute for, the response elicited by the unconditioned stimulus.
- This theory suggests that the conditioned response is essentially a replacement for the unconditioned response, with the conditioned stimulus taking on the role of the unconditioned stimulus.
In conclusion, the relationship between UR and CR is complex, with the responses not always being the same, organisms generally behaving towards the conditioned stimulus as they do towards the unconditioned stimulus, and the concept of stimulus substitution playing a role in the conditioning process.
Instrumental learning differs from classical conditioning in which of the following ways?- a)Instrumental learning does not differ from classical conditioning
- b)Instrumental learning requires a critical response from the animal whereas classical conditioning does not require a critical response from the animal
- c)Instrumental learning takes longer than classical conditioning
- d)Instrumental learning is affected by reinforcement or punishment from the environment
- e)(b) and (d)
Correct answer is option 'E'. Can you explain this answer?
Instrumental learning differs from classical conditioning in which of the following ways?
a)
Instrumental learning does not differ from classical conditioning
b)
Instrumental learning requires a critical response from the animal whereas classical conditioning does not require a critical response from the animal
c)
Instrumental learning takes longer than classical conditioning
d)
Instrumental learning is affected by reinforcement or punishment from the environment
e)
(b) and (d)
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Kiran Mehta answered |
Instrumental learning is based on responses by the organism to determine whether learning occurs whereas classical condition is not contingent on the organisms’ response. Both instrumental learning and classical conditioning can vary in the length of time for associations and learning to occur based on schedules of reinforcement and rate of pairings.
The fundamental element required for learning through classical conditioning is: - a)Conditioned stimuli
- b)Unconditioned stimuli
- c)Change
- d)Association
- e)All of the above
Correct answer is option 'D'. Can you explain this answer?
The fundamental element required for learning through classical conditioning is:
a)
Conditioned stimuli
b)
Unconditioned stimuli
c)
Change
d)
Association
e)
All of the above
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Rajesh Gupta answered |
Association refers to the link between two events that permits one to activate the other, and this is required for learning to occur by classical conditioning. Conditioned and unconditioned stimuli are the types of stimuli paired to create associations. Change is the ultimate outcome of successful classical conditioning.
Which of the following does NOT represent a form of learning? - a)A snail experiences a brief jolt of the surface on which it is crawling and reacts by retracting into its shell. Subsequent jolts, however, are found to be less effective in inducing withdrawal, until the reaction finally disappears.
- b)The first conspicuous moving object seen by a newly hatched chick is a laboratory attendant. As a consequence, the chick develops an attachment to that person, approaching and following him or her, and tending to avoid other things.
- c)A rat is given access to a distinctively flavoured foodstuff that has been laced with a small amount of poison, enough to induce nausea but not enough to kill. On recovering from its illness, however, the rat will still go back to the flavour.
- d)A hungry pigeon is given a small amount of food each time it happens to make a turn in a particular direction. After experiencing a few rewards, the bird develops an increasing tendency to circle on the spot in the ‘correct’ direction.
Correct answer is option 'C'. Can you explain this answer?
Which of the following does NOT represent a form of learning?
a)
A snail experiences a brief jolt of the surface on which it is crawling and reacts by retracting into its shell. Subsequent jolts, however, are found to be less effective in inducing withdrawal, until the reaction finally disappears.
b)
The first conspicuous moving object seen by a newly hatched chick is a laboratory attendant. As a consequence, the chick develops an attachment to that person, approaching and following him or her, and tending to avoid other things.
c)
A rat is given access to a distinctively flavoured foodstuff that has been laced with a small amount of poison, enough to induce nausea but not enough to kill. On recovering from its illness, however, the rat will still go back to the flavour.
d)
A hungry pigeon is given a small amount of food each time it happens to make a turn in a particular direction. After experiencing a few rewards, the bird develops an increasing tendency to circle on the spot in the ‘correct’ direction.
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Arun Yadav answered |
In psychology, the term ‘learning’ covers a range of phenomena. A wider definition might go something like this: ‘Learning is the process whereby an organism interacts with its environment and becomes changed by the experience so that its subsequent behaviour is modified.’ The acquisition of new information and new skills falls within this definition, but so do the following events:
(a) A snail experiences a brief jolt of the surface on which it is crawling and reacts by retracting into its shell. Subsequent jolts, however, are found to be less effective in inducing withdrawal until the reaction finally disappears – it is this change in response which signifies learning;
(b) The first conspicuous moving object seen by a newly hatched chick is a laboratory attendant. As a consequence, the chick develops an attachment to that person, approaching and following him or her, and tending to avoid other things;
(c) A rat is given access to a distinctively flavoured foodstuff that has been laced with a small amount of poison, enough to induce nausea but not enough to kill. On recovering from its illness, the rat will tend to shun the flavour, even if it is one that it liked beforehand;
(d) A hungry pigeon is given a small amount of food each time it happens to make a turn in a particular direction. After experiencing a few rewards, the bird develops an increasing tendency to circle on the spot in the ‘correct’ direction.
(a) A snail experiences a brief jolt of the surface on which it is crawling and reacts by retracting into its shell. Subsequent jolts, however, are found to be less effective in inducing withdrawal until the reaction finally disappears – it is this change in response which signifies learning;
(b) The first conspicuous moving object seen by a newly hatched chick is a laboratory attendant. As a consequence, the chick develops an attachment to that person, approaching and following him or her, and tending to avoid other things;
(c) A rat is given access to a distinctively flavoured foodstuff that has been laced with a small amount of poison, enough to induce nausea but not enough to kill. On recovering from its illness, the rat will tend to shun the flavour, even if it is one that it liked beforehand;
(d) A hungry pigeon is given a small amount of food each time it happens to make a turn in a particular direction. After experiencing a few rewards, the bird develops an increasing tendency to circle on the spot in the ‘correct’ direction.
How might behaviours of individuals with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) be explained by the principles of instrumental learning?- a)OCD behaviours are naturally learned from biological relatives
- b)OCD behaviours are learned from pairing anxiety-provoking stimuli with common behaviours
- c)OCD behaviours are learned by perceptual processing of anxiety-provoking stimuli
- d)OCD behaviours are contingent upon schedules of reinforcement
- e)OCD behaviours are reinforced and maintained because they reduce anxiety
Correct answer is option 'E'. Can you explain this answer?
How might behaviours of individuals with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) be explained by the principles of instrumental learning?
a)
OCD behaviours are naturally learned from biological relatives
b)
OCD behaviours are learned from pairing anxiety-provoking stimuli with common behaviours
c)
OCD behaviours are learned by perceptual processing of anxiety-provoking stimuli
d)
OCD behaviours are contingent upon schedules of reinforcement
e)
OCD behaviours are reinforced and maintained because they reduce anxiety
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Shruti Joshi answered |
Explanation:
OCD behaviors can be explained by the principles of instrumental learning, specifically in terms of reinforcement and reduction of anxiety.
Reinforcement:
- Individuals with OCD engage in specific behaviors (such as repetitive rituals or compulsions) because they have learned that these behaviors provide relief from anxiety.
- The relief from anxiety acts as a reinforcement, making the individual more likely to repeat the behavior in the future.
Reduction of Anxiety:
- People with OCD often experience high levels of anxiety or distress when faced with certain triggers or obsessions.
- By engaging in compulsive behaviors, they temporarily reduce this anxiety, reinforcing the behavior and making it more likely to occur again in the future.
Reinforcement and Maintenance:
- The reduction of anxiety through engaging in OCD behaviors acts as a form of negative reinforcement, as it reduces a negative stimulus (anxiety).
- This reinforcement mechanism maintains the OCD behaviors over time, as individuals continue to engage in them to alleviate their anxiety.
In summary, OCD behaviors are learned and reinforced through the reduction of anxiety they provide. This reinforcement loop maintains the behaviors and contributes to the persistence of OCD symptoms.
OCD behaviors can be explained by the principles of instrumental learning, specifically in terms of reinforcement and reduction of anxiety.
Reinforcement:
- Individuals with OCD engage in specific behaviors (such as repetitive rituals or compulsions) because they have learned that these behaviors provide relief from anxiety.
- The relief from anxiety acts as a reinforcement, making the individual more likely to repeat the behavior in the future.
Reduction of Anxiety:
- People with OCD often experience high levels of anxiety or distress when faced with certain triggers or obsessions.
- By engaging in compulsive behaviors, they temporarily reduce this anxiety, reinforcing the behavior and making it more likely to occur again in the future.
Reinforcement and Maintenance:
- The reduction of anxiety through engaging in OCD behaviors acts as a form of negative reinforcement, as it reduces a negative stimulus (anxiety).
- This reinforcement mechanism maintains the OCD behaviors over time, as individuals continue to engage in them to alleviate their anxiety.
In summary, OCD behaviors are learned and reinforced through the reduction of anxiety they provide. This reinforcement loop maintains the behaviors and contributes to the persistence of OCD symptoms.
Which of the following phenomena demonstrate the importance of classical conditioning for human behaviour?- a)Salivation and responses to light
- b)Illness-induced aversions and phobias
- c)Nausea and headaches
- d)(a), (b) and (c)
- e)None the above
Correct answer is option 'E'. Can you explain this answer?
Which of the following phenomena demonstrate the importance of classical conditioning for human behaviour?
a)
Salivation and responses to light
b)
Illness-induced aversions and phobias
c)
Nausea and headaches
d)
(a), (b) and (c)
e)
None the above
|
Sai Dey answered |
Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an organism associates two stimuli together and responds to one in the same way it would to the other. This type of conditioning has been widely studied and has been shown to play a significant role in human behavior. However, none of the phenomena listed in the options demonstrate the importance of classical conditioning for human behavior. Let's examine each option in detail.
a) Salivation and responses to light: Classical conditioning can be demonstrated through the famous Pavlov's experiment with dogs. In this experiment, Pavlov conditioned dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell by repeatedly pairing the bell with the presentation of food. This conditioned response is an example of classical conditioning. However, the question asks about the importance of classical conditioning for human behavior, and salivation and responses to light are not specific to humans.
b) Illness-induced aversions and phobias: Illness-induced aversions and phobias can be learned through classical conditioning. For example, if a person becomes ill after eating a certain food, they may develop an aversion to that food in the future. Similarly, if a person experiences a traumatic event in a specific situation, they may develop a phobia of that situation. These examples demonstrate how classical conditioning can influence behavior. However, the question asks about the importance of classical conditioning for human behavior in general, and illness-induced aversions and phobias are just one aspect of human behavior.
c) Nausea and headaches: Nausea and headaches are physiological responses that can be influenced by classical conditioning. For example, if a person consistently experiences nausea after eating a certain food, they may develop a conditioned response of nausea when they encounter that food in the future. Similarly, if a person consistently experiences headaches in a certain environment, they may develop a conditioned response of headaches when they are in that environment. Again, while these examples demonstrate the influence of classical conditioning on behavior, they do not cover the full scope of human behavior.
d) (a), (b), and (c): This option includes all the phenomena mentioned above. While classical conditioning plays a role in each of these phenomena, it is important to note that these are specific examples and do not encompass the entirety of human behavior.
e) None of the above: This is the correct answer because none of the phenomena listed in the options adequately demonstrate the importance of classical conditioning for human behavior. Classical conditioning is a fundamental process in learning and behavior, and its influence can be observed in a wide range of human behaviors, not just limited to salivation, aversions, or physiological responses.
a) Salivation and responses to light: Classical conditioning can be demonstrated through the famous Pavlov's experiment with dogs. In this experiment, Pavlov conditioned dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell by repeatedly pairing the bell with the presentation of food. This conditioned response is an example of classical conditioning. However, the question asks about the importance of classical conditioning for human behavior, and salivation and responses to light are not specific to humans.
b) Illness-induced aversions and phobias: Illness-induced aversions and phobias can be learned through classical conditioning. For example, if a person becomes ill after eating a certain food, they may develop an aversion to that food in the future. Similarly, if a person experiences a traumatic event in a specific situation, they may develop a phobia of that situation. These examples demonstrate how classical conditioning can influence behavior. However, the question asks about the importance of classical conditioning for human behavior in general, and illness-induced aversions and phobias are just one aspect of human behavior.
c) Nausea and headaches: Nausea and headaches are physiological responses that can be influenced by classical conditioning. For example, if a person consistently experiences nausea after eating a certain food, they may develop a conditioned response of nausea when they encounter that food in the future. Similarly, if a person consistently experiences headaches in a certain environment, they may develop a conditioned response of headaches when they are in that environment. Again, while these examples demonstrate the influence of classical conditioning on behavior, they do not cover the full scope of human behavior.
d) (a), (b), and (c): This option includes all the phenomena mentioned above. While classical conditioning plays a role in each of these phenomena, it is important to note that these are specific examples and do not encompass the entirety of human behavior.
e) None of the above: This is the correct answer because none of the phenomena listed in the options adequately demonstrate the importance of classical conditioning for human behavior. Classical conditioning is a fundamental process in learning and behavior, and its influence can be observed in a wide range of human behaviors, not just limited to salivation, aversions, or physiological responses.
Not every organism will learn at the same rate as a result of: - a)Contiguity and conditioning
- b)Habituation and contiguity
- c)Blocking and preparedness
- d)Blocking and autoshaping
- e)Preparedness and conditioning
Correct answer is option 'C'. Can you explain this answer?
Not every organism will learn at the same rate as a result of:
a)
Contiguity and conditioning
b)
Habituation and contiguity
c)
Blocking and preparedness
d)
Blocking and autoshaping
e)
Preparedness and conditioning
|
|
Kiran Mehta answered |
Blocking and preparedness challenge the contiguity principle and demonstrate that learning occurs at different rates depending on prior knowledge and similarity of events and stimuli. Contiguity refers to an association between events that occur together. Habituation refers to the waning of an unconditioned response. Autoshaping refers to a type of conditioned response.
Which TWO of the following are true of the learning set procedure? - The animal learns to focus on classes of cues that are inaccurate predictors of reward.
- In the win–stay, lose–shift strategy, the animal learns to persist with a choice that yields food, but shift to the other object if it does not.
- In the learning-set procedure, all stimuli and associations have equal effect on the animal’s behaviour.
- The occurrence of reward can be regarded as a stimulus that can enter into associations or acquire discriminative control over an instrumental action.
- a)1 & 2
- b)2 & 3
- c)1 & 3
- d)2 & 4
Correct answer is option 'D'. Can you explain this answer?
Which TWO of the following are true of the learning set procedure?
- The animal learns to focus on classes of cues that are inaccurate predictors of reward.
- In the win–stay, lose–shift strategy, the animal learns to persist with a choice that yields food, but shift to the other object if it does not.
- In the learning-set procedure, all stimuli and associations have equal effect on the animal’s behaviour.
- The occurrence of reward can be regarded as a stimulus that can enter into associations or acquire discriminative control over an instrumental action.
a)
1 & 2
b)
2 & 3
c)
1 & 3
d)
2 & 4
|
|
Arun Yadav answered |
By experiencing many discrimination problems of a similar type, the animal appears to abstract some general rule about how to behave in this situation – a rule that allows the near-instantaneous solution of a problem that it had, in fact, never faced before. The rule that operates in this case is the win–stay, lose–shift strategy: in other words, the animal learns to persist with a choice that yields food, but shift to the other object if it does not.
Associative theory can go some way towards explaining this. The occurrence of reward (or non-reward) can be regarded as a stimulus that, like any other, can enter into associations or acquire discriminative control over an instrumental action. The special feature of the learning-set procedure is that these stimuli and associations come to dominate the animal’s behaviour to the exclusion of all others.
So the animal learns to focus on classes of cues that are accurate predictors of reward and to ignore others that are not. Intensive research is currently going into the nature of such higher-level learning processes that might modulate the mechanisms of simpler associative processes.
Associative theory can go some way towards explaining this. The occurrence of reward (or non-reward) can be regarded as a stimulus that, like any other, can enter into associations or acquire discriminative control over an instrumental action. The special feature of the learning-set procedure is that these stimuli and associations come to dominate the animal’s behaviour to the exclusion of all others.
So the animal learns to focus on classes of cues that are accurate predictors of reward and to ignore others that are not. Intensive research is currently going into the nature of such higher-level learning processes that might modulate the mechanisms of simpler associative processes.
Which of the following statements applies to Garcia and Koelling’s (1966) experiment?- a)In the experiment by Garcia and Koelling (1966), animals given LiCl as the US showed an aversion to the light and the click.
- b)Researchers have tended to assume that the results obtained from laboratory studies reveal general principles about the nature of association formation which apply to other species and other stimuli.
- c)The experiment by Garcia and Koelling (1966) opposed the notion of preparedness.
- d)The result of Garcia and Koelling’s (1966) experiment supported researchers’ attempts to establish general laws of learning.
Correct answer is option 'B'. Can you explain this answer?
Which of the following statements applies to Garcia and Koelling’s (1966) experiment?
a)
In the experiment by Garcia and Koelling (1966), animals given LiCl as the US showed an aversion to the light and the click.
b)
Researchers have tended to assume that the results obtained from laboratory studies reveal general principles about the nature of association formation which apply to other species and other stimuli.
c)
The experiment by Garcia and Koelling (1966) opposed the notion of preparedness.
d)
The result of Garcia and Koelling’s (1966) experiment supported researchers’ attempts to establish general laws of learning.
|
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Arun Yadav answered |
In laboratory studies of conditioning, researchers have tended to assume that the results obtained reveal general principles about the nature of association formation, which apply to other species and other stimuli. The experiment by Garcia and Koelling (1966) presented an important challenge to this assumption by showing, for laboratory rats, that animals appear to be especially ‘prepared’ to associate some combinations of events and to have difficulty in forming associations between other combinations. Similar principles of preparedness may well apply to humans. Rats were allowed to drink a saccharin-flavoured solution while a light and noise were being presented: each lick at the drinking tube closed a circuit that produced a flash of light and a click.
So they experienced a compound CS comprising a taste element and an auditory–visual element. Some rats then received a nausea-inducing injection of lithium choride (LiCl) as the US; other rats received an electric shock to the feet as an aversive US. Both groups of rats showed a reduction in willingness to drink over the course of several training sessions. In the final test, animals received either access to the saccharin solution in the absence of the auditory–visual cue, or access to unflavoured water but with the auditory–visual cue still being presented.
Animals given LiCl as the US showed an aversion to saccharin but were willing to drink plain water even when it was accompanied by the light and the click. Animals given a shock as the US drank saccharin readily but shunned the ‘bright, noisy’ water. These results, and others like it, have led some researchers to suggest that we might be misguided in our attempt to establish general laws of learning.
So they experienced a compound CS comprising a taste element and an auditory–visual element. Some rats then received a nausea-inducing injection of lithium choride (LiCl) as the US; other rats received an electric shock to the feet as an aversive US. Both groups of rats showed a reduction in willingness to drink over the course of several training sessions. In the final test, animals received either access to the saccharin solution in the absence of the auditory–visual cue, or access to unflavoured water but with the auditory–visual cue still being presented.
Animals given LiCl as the US showed an aversion to saccharin but were willing to drink plain water even when it was accompanied by the light and the click. Animals given a shock as the US drank saccharin readily but shunned the ‘bright, noisy’ water. These results, and others like it, have led some researchers to suggest that we might be misguided in our attempt to establish general laws of learning.
Consider this sequence: (1) food, (2) salivation with food, (3) light with food, and (4) salivation with light. This procedure for presenting stimuli and observing responses with dogs is based on Pavlov’s experiments, and represents which sequence of classical conditioning?- a)Unconditioned stimulus, conditioned response, conditioned stimulus, unconditioned response
- b)Conditioned stimulus, conditioned response, unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response
- c)Unconditioned stimulus, conditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned response
- d)Unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, conditioned response
- e)Conditioned response, conditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, unconditioned stimulus
Correct answer is option 'D'. Can you explain this answer?
Consider this sequence: (1) food, (2) salivation with food, (3) light with food, and (4) salivation with light. This procedure for presenting stimuli and observing responses with dogs is based on Pavlov’s experiments, and represents which sequence of classical conditioning?
a)
Unconditioned stimulus, conditioned response, conditioned stimulus, unconditioned response
b)
Conditioned stimulus, conditioned response, unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response
c)
Unconditioned stimulus, conditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned response
d)
Unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, conditioned response
e)
Conditioned response, conditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, unconditioned stimulus
|
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Kiran Mehta answered |
Food represents the unconditioned stimulus, which trigger an unconditioned response, salivation. The presentation of light with food represents a conditioned stimulus that will eventually trigger a conditioned response, salivation with light in the absence of food. None of the other answers include the correct sequence.
Phobias can be very debilitating and distressing phenomena. Which, if any, of the following statements are correct in relation to Watson and Rayner’s (1920) research into them? - Watson and Rayner speculated that the complexity of emotional responsiveness in adults might be explained by the conditioning of children’s simple emotional reactions when they are exposed to new stimuli.
- Watson and Rayner found evidence for emotional conditioning from a test trial in which the rat was accompanied by the noise.
- The fear reaction in Albert could be produced by a loud noise.
- None of the above.
- a)1 & 2
- b)1 & 3
- c)2 & 3
- d)4
Correct answer is option 'B'. Can you explain this answer?
Phobias can be very debilitating and distressing phenomena. Which, if any, of the following statements are correct in relation to Watson and Rayner’s (1920) research into them?
- Watson and Rayner speculated that the complexity of emotional responsiveness in adults might be explained by the conditioning of children’s simple emotional reactions when they are exposed to new stimuli.
- Watson and Rayner found evidence for emotional conditioning from a test trial in which the rat was accompanied by the noise.
- The fear reaction in Albert could be produced by a loud noise.
- None of the above.
a)
1 & 2
b)
1 & 3
c)
2 & 3
d)
4
|
|
Kiran Mehta answered |
Phobias can be very debilitating and distressing phenomena. Many of us know someone who is anxious about enclosed spaces, needles or spiders. Watson and Rayner (1920) speculated that the complexity of emotional responsiveness in adults might be explained by the conditioning of children’s simple emotional reactions when they are exposed to new stimuli in their youth. They decided to test this proposal by attempting to establish a conditioned emotional response in a child under experimental conditions.
The study was done with a ‘stolid and unemotional’ infant boy, Albert B. At 8 months of age he was exposed to a number of stimuli, including a white rat, a rabbit and a monkey, and showed no signs of fear to any of these stimuli. The fear reaction could be produced, however, by a sudden loud noise (produced by striking a steel bar with a hammer).
At 11 months, Albert was subjected to the conditioning trials. The CS was a white rat, which Albert was allowed to play with, and the US was the loud noise. On six occasions over the course of a week, Albert was presented with the rat and at the same time he was subjected to the noise produced by striking the steel bar. Evidence for emotional conditioning came from a test trial in which the rat was presented alone (i.e. not accompanied by the noise). Here is Watson and Rayner’s description of the result: The instant the rat was shown, the baby began to cry. Almost instantly he turned sharply to the left, fell over on [his] left side, raised himself on all fours and began to crawl away.
The study was done with a ‘stolid and unemotional’ infant boy, Albert B. At 8 months of age he was exposed to a number of stimuli, including a white rat, a rabbit and a monkey, and showed no signs of fear to any of these stimuli. The fear reaction could be produced, however, by a sudden loud noise (produced by striking a steel bar with a hammer).
At 11 months, Albert was subjected to the conditioning trials. The CS was a white rat, which Albert was allowed to play with, and the US was the loud noise. On six occasions over the course of a week, Albert was presented with the rat and at the same time he was subjected to the noise produced by striking the steel bar. Evidence for emotional conditioning came from a test trial in which the rat was presented alone (i.e. not accompanied by the noise). Here is Watson and Rayner’s description of the result: The instant the rat was shown, the baby began to cry. Almost instantly he turned sharply to the left, fell over on [his] left side, raised himself on all fours and began to crawl away.
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