All questions of Climatology for BPSC (Bihar) Exam

Both options are correct The organic compounds are the amino acids, nucleic acids, proteins, vitamins and pigments.Generally, nitrogen is usable only after it is fixed. 90% of fixed nitrogen is biological.Only a few types of organisms like certain species of soil bacteria and blue-green algae are capable of utilising it directly in its gaseous form.

All statements are correct; hence answer is (d). There are six major controls of the climate of any place. They are latitude, altitude, pressure and wind system, distance from the sea (continentality), ocean currents and relief features.

The correct answer is option 'C' - 1 and 2 only.

Explanation:
The Roaring Forties are strong westerly winds found in the Southern Hemisphere. These winds are primarily caused by two factors:

1. Air being displaced from the Equator towards the South Pole:
The Earth's rotation and the difference in temperature between the equator and the poles create a pressure gradient, causing air to flow from the equator towards the poles. This flow of air is known as the Ferrel cell. In the Southern Hemisphere, the air is deflected to the left due to the Coriolis effect, resulting in the westerly winds known as the Roaring Forties.

2. Earth's rotation:
The rotation of the Earth also plays a significant role in the formation of the Roaring Forties. The Coriolis effect, which is caused by the rotation of the Earth, causes the moving air to be deflected to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. This deflection is what creates the westerly winds.

However, the other options mentioned in the question are not directly responsible for the formation of the Roaring Forties:

3. Equatorial counter-currents:
Equatorial counter-currents refer to the eastward flowing currents found near the equator. While these currents do influence the ocean currents and atmospheric circulation patterns, they are not the main cause of the Roaring Forties.

4. Thermal dipole created in the Pacific Ocean:
A thermal dipole refers to the contrast in sea surface temperatures between two regions. While temperature differences can affect atmospheric circulation, a thermal dipole in the Pacific Ocean does not directly cause the Roaring Forties.

In conclusion, the Roaring Forties are primarily caused by the displacement of air from the Equator towards the South Pole and the Earth's rotation. Other factors such as equatorial counter-currents and thermal dipoles may influence the atmospheric circulation patterns but are not the primary causes of the Roaring Forties.

Dew Point

The correct statements about dew point are:
1. Dew point is the temperature at which the atmosphere is saturated with water vapor.
2. The dew point indicates the humidity.

Explanation:

What is Dew Point?
Dew point is the temperature at which the air becomes saturated with water vapor, leading to the formation of dew or frost. It is the temperature below which the water vapor in the air begins to condense into liquid water. The dew point is a measure of how much moisture is present in the air.

Statement 1: Dew point is the temperature at which the atmosphere is saturated with water vapor.
This statement is correct. The dew point represents the temperature at which the air cannot hold any more moisture and becomes saturated. When the air reaches its dew point temperature, it can no longer hold all the water vapor it contains, resulting in the condensation of water droplets.

Statement 2: The dew point indicates the humidity.
This statement is also correct. The dew point is an essential factor in determining the humidity of the air. Higher dew points indicate higher levels of moisture in the atmosphere, while lower dew points indicate lower moisture levels. It is a more accurate measure of humidity compared to relative humidity, as it directly represents the actual amount of moisture present in the air.

Statement 3: A higher dew point means there will be less moisture in the air.
This statement is incorrect. A higher dew point actually indicates a higher amount of moisture in the air. If the dew point is high, it means that the air is already saturated with water vapor and cannot hold much more moisture. This often leads to a feeling of discomfort, as the human body's ability to cool itself through evaporation is reduced when the air is already saturated.

Therefore, the correct statements about dew point are 1. Dew point is the temperature at which the atmosphere is saturated with water vapor and 2. The dew point indicates the humidity.

All the given definitions are right.

The westerly winds develop within the equatorial trough when the Intertropical Convergence Zone is well north or south of the Equator. The northeasterly or southeasterly trade winds cross the Equator and, because of the reversal of the Coriolis effect, acquire a westerly component. The term is also applied to the westerlies that arc present throughout most of the year in the eastern Indian Ocean.

The troposphere is thicker at the equator than at the poles because the equator is warmer. The convection currents of air expand the thickness of the troposphere (atmosphere) at poles. Thus, the simple reason is thermal expansion of the atmosphere at the equator and thermal contraction near the poles.

More than 200cm per annum

Explanation:

Low-pressure systems are usually characterized by unsettled and wet weather, while high-pressure systems are associated with stable and dry weather conditions. Therefore, neither statement 1 nor statement 2 is correct.

Low-pressure systems are characterized by the following weather conditions:

1. Clouds and precipitation: Low-pressure systems are typically associated with cloudy skies and precipitation. The lower atmospheric pressure allows air to rise, cool, and condense, forming clouds and eventually leading to rain or other forms of precipitation.

2. Unsettled weather: Low-pressure systems often bring dynamic and changing weather conditions. Due to the upward motion of air, low-pressure systems can generate strong winds, thunderstorms, and even severe weather events like hurricanes and tornadoes.

3. Cyclonic circulation: In the Northern Hemisphere, low-pressure systems exhibit counterclockwise (cyclonic) circulation. The converging winds near the surface flow inward, while the rising air in the center of the low moves upward and diverges aloft. This circulation pattern is responsible for the unsettled weather associated with low-pressure systems.

High-pressure systems, on the other hand, are characterized by the following weather conditions:

1. Clear skies: High-pressure systems are generally associated with clear skies and sunny weather. The sinking air within the high-pressure system inhibits the formation of clouds and promotes dry conditions.

2. Stable weather: High-pressure systems tend to create stable weather conditions. The sinking air within the high-pressure system suppresses vertical motion, which limits cloud formation and precipitation. As a result, high-pressure systems often bring calm and settled weather patterns.

3. Anticyclonic circulation: In the Northern Hemisphere, high-pressure systems exhibit clockwise (anticyclonic) circulation. The air near the surface diverges outward, while the sinking air in the center of the high moves downward and converges aloft. This circulation pattern contributes to the stable weather associated with high-pressure systems.

In conclusion, both statement 1 and statement 2 are incorrect. Low-pressure systems are characterized by unsettled and wet weather, while high-pressure systems are associated with stable and dry weather conditions.

In January, Earth is closer to Sun (perihelion) while in July, it experiences aphelion. But due to uneven distribution of land and sea in both hemispheres and air circulation, differences are evened out.

One of the factors that is not connected with the planetary wind system is the migration of the pressure belts due to the apparent path of the Sun. Let's understand why this is the correct answer.

Explanation:
The planetary wind system is a global pattern of winds that circulate around the Earth. It is primarily driven by two main factors: the latitudinal variation of solar insolation and heating, and the Earth's rotation on its axis.

1. Latitudinal variation of solar insolation and heating:
Solar insolation refers to the amount of solar radiation received by the Earth's surface. It varies with latitude due to the curvature of the Earth and the tilt of its axis. The equatorial regions receive more direct sunlight and are therefore heated more, while the polar regions receive less direct sunlight and are colder.

This variation in heating creates temperature and pressure gradients, which in turn drive the movement of air masses. Warm air rises at the equator, creating a low-pressure zone, while cold air sinks at the poles, creating a high-pressure zone. The movement of air from high-pressure to low-pressure areas creates winds.

2. Earth's rotation on its axis:
The Earth's rotation on its axis causes a phenomenon known as the Coriolis effect. This effect deflects the path of moving objects, including air masses, to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.

The Coriolis effect influences the direction of winds in the planetary wind system. In the Northern Hemisphere, winds are deflected to the right, resulting in the northeast trade winds near the equator and the prevailing westerlies in the mid-latitudes. In the Southern Hemisphere, winds are deflected to the left, leading to the southeast trade winds near the equator and the prevailing easterlies in the mid-latitudes.

3. Migration of the pressure belts due to the apparent path of the Sun:
The migration of the pressure belts is not directly connected with the planetary wind system. The pressure belts, such as the equatorial low-pressure belt (Intertropical Convergence Zone) and the subtropical high-pressure belts, do shift with the apparent path of the Sun throughout the year. This movement is responsible for the seasonal changes in weather patterns, such as the monsoon winds.

However, the migration of the pressure belts does not affect the overall global pattern of winds in the planetary wind system. The latitudinal variation of solar insolation and heating, as well as the Earth's rotation, are the primary drivers of the planetary wind system.

In conclusion, the migration of the pressure belts due to the apparent path of the Sun is not directly connected with the planetary wind system. The main factors that determine the global pattern of winds are the latitudinal variation of solar insolation and heating, as well as the Earth's rotation on its axis.

Tyndall effect can be observed when sunlight passes through the canopy of a dense forest. In the forest, mist contains tiny droplets of water, which act as particles of colloid dispersed in the air.

• Water vapour is a very effective absorber of heat energy in the air, but it does not accumulate in the atmosphere in the same way as the other greenhouse gases. This is down to it having a very short atmospheric lifetime, of the order of hours to days because it is rapidly removed as rain and snow.
• Nitrous oxide is destroyed in the stratosphere and removed from the atmosphere more slowly than methane, persisting for around 114 years.
• Methane is mostly removed from the atmosphere by chemical reaction, persisting for about 12 years. Thus, although methane is a potent greenhouse gas, its effect is relatively short-lived.
• SF6 is included in the Kyoto Protocol because, molecule-for-molecule, it is a powerful greenhouse gas with a long (>1000 years) lifetime in the atmosphere. The signatory nations are thus committed to controlling the rate of its production.

As the evaporation is high and moisture content is lesser in the subtropical and temperate areas compared to equatorial and polar regions, winds are dry; and dust particles are more. Where the moisture is high they fall back to the ground.

The Coriolis force is a phenomenon that affects the motion of objects in a rotating frame of reference, such as the Earth. It is caused by the rotation of the Earth and the inertia of moving objects. The Coriolis force plays a role in several natural phenomena, including the formation of meanders, the direction of trade winds, and the direction of jet streams.

1. Formation of Meanders:
Meanders are bends or curves in a river or stream. The Coriolis force plays a role in their formation by causing water to flow in a curved path. As water flows downstream, the Coriolis force deflects the moving water to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. This deflection causes the water to spiral and form meanders.

2. Direction of Trade Winds:
Trade winds are prevailing winds that blow from east to west in the tropics. The Coriolis force influences the direction of trade winds by deflecting them to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. This deflection is caused by the rotation of the Earth and the inertia of the moving air. The Coriolis force helps to create the distinct east-to-west flow of trade winds.

3. Directing Jet Streams:
Jet streams are high-altitude, narrow bands of strong winds that flow from west to east. The Coriolis force plays a significant role in directing jet streams. As the Earth rotates, the Coriolis force causes the air in the jet streams to deflect to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. This deflection helps to shape the path and direction of the jet streams.

4. Impact Crater:
The Coriolis force does not directly impact the formation of impact craters. Impact craters are created when a meteor or asteroid collides with the Earth's surface. The force of the impact causes a large explosion and ejects material from the impact site. While the Coriolis force does not play a role in the formation of impact craters, it can affect the movement of ejected material after the impact, as it follows curved paths due to the rotation of the Earth.

In conclusion, the Coriolis force plays a role in the formation of meanders, the direction of trade winds, and the direction of jet streams. Therefore, the correct answer is option C (1, 2, and 3 only).

Explanation:

Capacity of air to hold moisture is measured in terms of relative humidity. Relative humidity is the percentage of moisture present in the air compared to the maximum amount of moisture that the air can hold at a particular temperature. The higher the temperature, the more moisture air can hold.

Hot subtropical deserts have high capacity of air to hold moisture because of the following reasons:

1. High temperatures: Subtropical deserts are characterized by hot and dry climate. The temperature in these regions can reach up to 50°C during the day and drop to near freezing at night. The high temperature increases the capacity of air to hold moisture.

2. Low humidity: Subtropical deserts have low humidity because of the scarcity of water. The dry air has more capacity to hold moisture.

3. High pressure: High pressure systems dominate in subtropical deserts. High pressure causes the air to sink and warm, increasing the capacity of air to hold moisture.

Coastal regions and tropical rainforests have high humidity, which means that the air is already saturated with moisture. Therefore, the capacity of air to hold moisture is lower in these regions. Cold Tundra regions have low temperatures, which means that the capacity of air to hold moisture is also low.

In conclusion, hot subtropical deserts have the highest capacity of air to hold moisture because of the high temperatures, low humidity, and high pressure systems.

Explanation:
The thermal equator is an imaginary circle around the Earth that connects the points where the highest mean annual temperature is recorded at each longitude. The following points explain why the thermal equator is slightly north of the geographical equator:

- Solar insolation is comparatively much higher in the Northern Hemisphere than in the Southern Hemisphere. This is due to the fact that the Earth's orbit is not circular but slightly elliptical. As a result, the Earth is closer to the Sun during the Northern Hemisphere summer than during the Southern Hemisphere summer. This means that there is more solar radiation falling on the Northern Hemisphere, leading to higher temperatures.

- The Northern Hemisphere is dominated by land, which heats up faster than water. Land has a lower heat capacity than water, which means that it takes less energy to raise its temperature. This is why temperatures in the interior of continents can be much higher than temperatures on the coasts. In contrast, the Southern Hemisphere is dominated by ocean waters, which have a higher heat capacity and take longer to warm up. This leads to lower temperatures in the Southern Hemisphere.

Therefore, both factors contribute to the fact that the thermal equator is slightly north of the geographical equator. Option B is the correct answer.

Temperature inversion is most common in Mountain valleys.

Explanation:

Temperature inversion refers to a reversal of the normal atmospheric temperature gradient, where the temperature increases with altitude. In other words, instead of the temperature decreasing as we go higher in the atmosphere, it actually increases. This phenomenon is caused by the trapping of cool air near the surface of the Earth by a layer of warm air above it.

Inversions can occur in various locations, but they are most common in mountain valleys. Here's why:

1. Geographic Features:
- Mountain valleys are characterized by their topography, with high mountains surrounding a narrow valley floor.
- This topography plays a crucial role in the formation of temperature inversions.
- During the day, the sun heats up the valley floor, causing the air near the surface to warm and rise.
- However, at night, the valley floor cools rapidly due to radiative cooling, causing the air near the surface to become colder than the air above it.

2. Cold Air Drainage:
- In mountain valleys, cold air tends to drain down the slopes and accumulate in the valley bottom.
- This cold air becomes trapped beneath a layer of warmer air, leading to the formation of a temperature inversion.
- The surrounding mountains act as barriers, preventing the cold air from mixing with the warmer air above.

3. Stable Atmospheric Conditions:
- Temperature inversions are more likely to occur when the atmosphere is stable.
- In stable atmospheric conditions, there is little vertical mixing of air masses, allowing the inversion layer to persist.
- Mountain valleys often experience stable atmospheric conditions, especially during calm and clear nights when radiative cooling is most effective.

4. Local Climate:
- Mountain valleys tend to have specific climatic conditions that favor the formation of temperature inversions.
- The cool air trapped in the valley can lead to the accumulation of pollutants, such as smoke or fog, which further enhance the inversion layer.
- This can result in poor air quality and reduced visibility in these areas.

In conclusion, temperature inversions are most common in mountain valleys due to the geographic features, cold air drainage, stable atmospheric conditions, and local climate characteristics associated with these regions.

Gravitational forces acting on air

- The reason why air closer to the Earth's surface is heavier is due to the gravitational forces acting on it.
- Gravity is a force that pulls objects towards the center of the Earth. It is responsible for keeping the atmosphere in place.
- The force of gravity is stronger closer to the Earth's surface and weaker as you move further away from it.
- As a result, the air molecules near the surface experience a greater gravitational force compared to those in the upper atmosphere.

Effect of gravitational forces on air

- The gravitational force causes the air molecules to be pulled towards the Earth's surface, creating pressure.
- This pressure is known as atmospheric pressure and it decreases with increasing altitude.
- The weight of the air above a certain point in the atmosphere creates pressure at that point.
- Therefore, the air closer to the Earth's surface experiences a higher atmospheric pressure compared to the air in the upper atmosphere.

Density and weight of air

- The air near the Earth's surface is denser compared to the air in the upper atmosphere.
- Density is the mass of an object per unit volume. The denser the air, the more mass it contains in a given volume.
- The weight of an object is the force exerted on it due to gravity. The weight of air is determined by its mass.
- Since the air near the Earth's surface has a higher density, it also has a higher mass per unit volume, resulting in a higher weight.

Conclusion

- In conclusion, the air closer to the Earth's surface is heavier because of the gravitational forces acting on it.
- These forces cause the air molecules to be pulled towards the Earth, creating higher atmospheric pressure and denser air near the surface.
- Understanding the effects of gravity on the atmosphere is important for studying weather patterns, air circulation, and other atmospheric phenomena.

Why do rain clouds appear black in colour despite having the Sun above them?

Explanation:
Rain clouds appear black in colour despite having the Sun above them primarily because clouds scatter the light they receive. Let's understand each option given in the question to arrive at the correct answer:

1. Clouds accumulate electrostatic charge:
This option is incorrect as the accumulation of electrostatic charge in clouds does not cause them to appear black in colour.

2. Rain-bearing clouds absorb most of the solar insolation falling on them:
This option is incorrect as rain-bearing clouds do not absorb most of the solar insolation falling on them. Instead, they reflect and scatter a significant portion of the sunlight they receive.

3. Clouds scatter light received by them:
This option is correct. Clouds are made up of tiny water droplets or ice crystals, which act as scattering centers for the incoming sunlight. When sunlight passes through a cloud, the individual water droplets scatter the light in all directions. This scattering of light causes the cloud to appear white or gray to the observer on the ground. However, when rain clouds become thicker and denser, they scatter more light and absorb less, resulting in a darker appearance. The thicker the cloud, the more light it scatters, making it appear darker or even black.

Therefore, the correct answer is option 'D' - 3 only, which states that rain clouds appear black in colour because clouds scatter the light received by them.

In conclusion, rain clouds appear black in colour despite having the Sun above them because of the scattering of light by the water droplets or ice crystals present in the clouds. The thicker and denser the clouds, the more light they scatter, resulting in a darker appearance.

Factors that affect the temperature at a particular region include:

1. Circulation of planetary and local winds:
The circulation of winds plays a crucial role in determining the temperature of a region. The movement of air masses through the circulation of winds can bring warm or cold air to a particular area, thereby affecting its temperature. For example, the warm and dry winds blowing from the desert regions can increase the temperature in nearby areas, while the cool sea breeze can lower the temperature in coastal regions.

2. Altitude and terrain of the place:
Altitude and terrain have a significant impact on temperature. As we move higher in altitude, the temperature tends to decrease. This is because the air becomes thinner and cannot retain heat as effectively. Additionally, the presence of mountains or other geographical features can influence temperature patterns by blocking or diverting air masses, leading to variations in temperature.

3. Distance of the region from poles or equator:
The distance of a region from the poles or equator is a crucial factor in determining its temperature. The equatorial regions receive direct sunlight throughout the year, resulting in higher temperatures. On the other hand, the polar regions receive oblique sunlight, leading to lower temperatures. The regions located in between experience moderate temperatures.

4. Movement of ocean waves:
The movement of ocean waves, particularly ocean currents, can significantly influence the temperature of coastal regions. Ocean currents can transport warm or cold water from one region to another, thereby affecting the temperature of the coastal areas. For example, the Gulf Stream current brings warm water from the tropics to the eastern coast of North America, resulting in relatively higher temperatures in that region.

Therefore, the correct answer is option 'B' (1, 2, and 3 only). The circulation of winds, altitude and terrain, and the distance of the region from poles or equator are the factors that affect the temperature at a particular region. The movement of ocean waves, while important for coastal regions, is not a factor that affects the temperature at a broader regional scale.

Not Related to Formation or Modification of Present Atmosphere

Differentiation is not related to the formation or modification of the present atmosphere.

Explanation:

Formation and modification of the present atmosphere involve various processes that have occurred over millions of years. Some of the significant processes that have led to the formation or modification of the atmosphere are:

1. Solar winds: Solar winds are streams of charged particles that originate from the sun. These solar winds have contributed to the formation of the atmosphere by stripping away the outer layer of the early atmosphere.

2. Degassing: Degassing refers to the release of gases from the Earth's interior. Volcanic eruptions and other tectonic activities have contributed to the release of gases such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and water vapor.

3. Photosynthesis: Photosynthesis is the process by which plants convert carbon dioxide and water into oxygen and organic compounds. This process has led to the increase in the concentration of oxygen in the atmosphere.

However, differentiation is not related to the formation or modification of the present atmosphere. Differentiation refers to the process by which the Earth's interior became separated into distinct layers, with the heaviest materials sinking to the core and the lighter materials rising to the surface. This process occurred early in the Earth's history, and it did not have a significant impact on the formation or modification of the atmosphere.

Coriolis force: The deflection is greater when the velocity of the wind is high. The Coriolis force is directly proportional to the latitude angle. At the poles, it is maximum, and at the equator, it is absent.

Assertion (A): The eastern coasts of continents within the tropics have much heavier rainfall than the interiors of the west coasts.
Reason (R): All western coasts fall in the rain shadow zone.

The correct answer is option 'C', which states that Assertion (A) is correct, but Reason (R) is incorrect.

Explanation:

Eastern Coasts of Continents within the Tropics have Heavier Rainfall:
- The eastern coasts of continents within the tropics, such as the eastern coast of India or the eastern coast of Africa, receive heavier rainfall compared to the interiors of the west coasts.
- This is due to the prevailing wind patterns in the tropics, specifically the trade winds.
- The trade winds blow from east to west in the tropics, carrying moist air from the oceans towards the western coasts of continents.
- As the moist air encounters the landmass, it is forced to rise, leading to the formation of clouds and subsequent rainfall along the western coasts.
- This phenomenon is known as orographic rainfall, where the moist air is lifted over a mountain or elevated terrain, resulting in enhanced precipitation.
- As a result, the western coasts of continents within the tropics receive significant rainfall.

Rain Shadow Zone:
- The rain shadow zone refers to the area that lies on the leeward side of a mountain range or elevated terrain.
- When moist air is lifted over a mountain range, it cools and condenses, leading to rainfall on the windward side of the mountain.
- However, as the air descends on the leeward side, it warms and dries up, resulting in reduced rainfall and arid conditions.
- This creates a rain shadow zone, which is characterized by low precipitation and dry climate.
- The rain shadow effect is prominent on the leeward side of mountain ranges, where the prevailing winds are blocked by the mountains, preventing the moist air from reaching the area.

Reason (R) is Incorrect:
- While it is true that western coasts often experience the rain shadow effect, it is not true that all western coasts fall in the rain shadow zone.
- There are several factors that determine the occurrence of the rain shadow effect, including the direction of prevailing winds, the height and orientation of the mountain range, and the distance from the coast.
- In some cases, the western coasts may not be affected by the rain shadow effect and may receive significant rainfall due to other atmospheric factors or geographical features.

Conclusion:
- The assertion that the eastern coasts of continents within the tropics have heavier rainfall than the interiors of the west coasts is correct.
- However, the reason that all western coasts fall in the rain shadow zone is incorrect, as it does not consider the various factors that determine the occurrence of the rain shadow effect.

During the day, this happens.

• So, if you are facing the sea, the wind will strike your face and continue to land.
• During the night, this happens. So, if you are facing the sea, the wind will strike your back and continue to the sea.

Albedo:
Albedo refers to the measure of the reflectivity of a surface. It quantifies how much sunlight is reflected back into space compared to how much is absorbed. The albedo value ranges from 0 to 1, where 0 indicates complete absorption and 1 indicates complete reflection.

Lithosphere:
The lithosphere refers to the rigid outer layer of the Earth, including the crust and uppermost part of the mantle. It consists of various materials such as rocks, soil, and minerals. The albedo of the lithosphere varies depending on the type of surface. For example, the albedo of rocks can range from 0.05 to 0.40, while the albedo of soil can range from 0.10 to 0.30.

Atmosphere:
The atmosphere is the layer of gases surrounding the Earth. It consists of various components such as nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water vapor. The albedo of the atmosphere is primarily influenced by the presence of clouds and aerosols. Clouds have a relatively high albedo, ranging from 0.30 to 0.90, depending on their thickness and composition. Aerosols, which include particles like dust and pollution, can also affect the albedo of the atmosphere.

Cryosphere:
The cryosphere refers to the frozen parts of the Earth's surface, including glaciers, ice caps, and sea ice. The albedo of the cryosphere is generally high due to its reflective nature. Fresh snow has one of the highest albedo values, ranging from 0.80 to 0.90, meaning that it reflects 80-90% of the incoming sunlight. Ice also has a high albedo, ranging from 0.40 to 0.70.

Hydrosphere:
The hydrosphere includes all forms of water on Earth, such as oceans, lakes, rivers, and groundwater. The albedo of the hydrosphere varies depending on the angle of the Sun, the presence of waves, and the amount of dissolved and suspended materials in the water. Generally, the albedo of water ranges from 0.05 to 0.10, meaning that it reflects only 5-10% of the incoming sunlight.

Conclusion:
Among the given options, the cryosphere has the highest albedo. This is because the frozen surfaces of the cryosphere, such as snow and ice, have a high reflectivity, leading to a higher percentage of sunlight being reflected back into space. This high albedo of the cryosphere plays a significant role in regulating the Earth's climate by reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed at the surface.

Introduction:
Sand and dust storms are natural phenomena that occur across the world. They have significant impacts on human health and the environment. This question focuses on three important aspects related to sand and dust storms.

Explanation:
1. They can travel thousands of kilometres across continents and oceans:
- Sand and dust storms are powerful atmospheric events that can transport vast amounts of sand and dust particles over long distances.
- These storms are often caused by strong winds that lift and carry particles from arid and desert regions.
- The particles can be carried over thousands of kilometers, crossing continents and even oceans.
- This phenomenon has been observed in various parts of the world, such as the Sahara desert dust reaching North America and the Asian dust storms reaching the Pacific Ocean.

2. Chronic exposure to fine dust contributes to premature deaths from respiratory and cardiovascular diseases:
- Fine dust particles, known as particulate matter (PM), are one of the major components of sand and dust storms.
- These particles are small enough to be inhaled deep into the respiratory system.
- Chronic exposure to PM can lead to various health problems, including respiratory and cardiovascular diseases.
- The fine particles can cause inflammation in the lungs, aggravate existing respiratory conditions, and increase the risk of heart attacks and strokes.
- Studies have shown a strong association between exposure to PM and premature deaths.

3. Deforestation, unsustainable agricultural practices, excessive water extraction, and modification of water bodies for irrigation and other purposes:
- These human activities have a direct impact on the occurrence and intensity of sand and dust storms.
- Deforestation reduces vegetation cover, which can lead to soil erosion and the formation of dust sources.
- Unsustainable agricultural practices, such as overgrazing and improper land management, can also contribute to soil erosion and the release of dust particles.
- Excessive water extraction from rivers and groundwater can lower the water table, leading to the exposure of dry and dusty soil.
- The modification of water bodies, such as the construction of dams and reservoirs, can alter natural water flow patterns, potentially drying up rivers and exposing the sediment.
- All these activities increase the vulnerability to sand and dust storms and exacerbate their impacts on human health and the environment.

Conclusion:
Sand and dust storms have far-reaching effects, both in terms of their geographical spread and their impact on human health. It is crucial to address the underlying causes, such as deforestation, unsustainable agricultural practices, and excessive water extraction, to mitigate the risks associated with sand and dust storms. By recognizing the interconnectedness of these issues, we can work towards sustainable solutions that protect both human health and the environment.

Katabatic winds are downslope winds that occur due to density differences in the wind at different altitudes. These winds are commonly found in mountainous regions and can have significant impacts on local weather patterns and ecosystems.

Explanation:

Density Differences in the Wind at Different Altitudes:
Katabatic winds occur when there is a difference in air density between higher and lower altitudes. This density difference is typically caused by variations in temperature and pressure. As air near the mountaintop cools, it becomes denser and begins to flow downhill, creating a katabatic wind.

Formation of Katabatic Winds:
Katabatic winds are primarily formed at night when the air near the mountaintop cools faster than the air at lower elevations. As the cool air sinks, it gains momentum and accelerates downhill, resulting in strong winds. The process is similar to how cold air sinks and flows down a valley or slope.

Effects of Katabatic Winds:
1. Local Weather Patterns: Katabatic winds can significantly influence local weather patterns. As the cool air descends, it can displace warmer air masses, leading to changes in temperature and humidity. These winds can also enhance orographic lifting, which can result in the formation of clouds and precipitation on the windward side of mountains.

2. Ecological Impact: Katabatic winds can have a significant impact on the local ecosystem, especially in mountainous regions. These winds can cause rapid changes in temperature and moisture, affecting vegetation growth and distribution. They can also create microclimates and influence the behavior of wildlife.

3. Transportation and Aviation: Katabatic winds can create challenging conditions for transportation and aviation. The strong, gusty winds can make driving difficult, especially for high-profile vehicles. In aviation, katabatic winds can affect takeoffs and landings, as well as the stability of aircraft in flight.

In conclusion, katabatic winds occur due to density differences in the wind at different altitudes. These winds are formed when cool, dense air descends from higher elevations, resulting in strong downslope winds. The impact of katabatic winds includes changes in local weather patterns, ecological effects, and challenges for transportation and aviation.

Explanation:
The westerlies are prevailing winds that blow from west to east in the mid-latitudes. They originate from the subtropical high-pressure belts known as the horse latitudes and move towards the poles. In the Northern Hemisphere, the westerlies are strong due to the presence of large land masses, while in the Southern Hemisphere, they are weaker due to the dominance of oceans.

Therefore, the correct statements are:

1. Westerlies originate in the horse latitudes and move towards the poles.
2. Westerlies move from west to east.

Hence, the correct answer is option A (1 and 2 only).

The correct answer is option 'D', None of the above. Let's discuss why.

1. They blow mainly in the Northern Hemisphere near the equator:
This statement is incorrect. The South-East trade winds do not blow mainly in the Northern Hemisphere near the equator. In fact, they blow primarily in the Southern Hemisphere near the equator. The trade winds are a global wind system that blows from the subtropical high-pressure belts towards the equator. In the Southern Hemisphere, the trade winds blow from the southeast towards the equator, while in the Northern Hemisphere, they blow from the northeast towards the equator.

2. The winds are deflected towards the East by the Coriolis Effect:
This statement is also incorrect. The South-East trade winds are not deflected towards the East by the Coriolis Effect. The Coriolis Effect is a phenomenon that is caused by the rotation of the Earth. It causes moving objects, including wind, to be deflected to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. As a result, the South-East trade winds are actually deflected towards the West in the Southern Hemisphere, not towards the East.

In summary, both statements given about the South-East trade winds are incorrect. The trade winds blow primarily in the Southern Hemisphere near the equator and are deflected towards the West by the Coriolis Effect. Therefore, the correct answer is option 'D', None of the above.

A desert cooler cools better on a hot dry day because on a hot day temperature is high and humidity is less which helps in belter evaporation. Due to the higher rate of evaporation, it gives a better cooling effect.