All questions of Immunity for A Level Exam

The Widal test is one method that may be used to help make a presumptive diagnosis of enteric fever, also known as typhoid fever.The test was based on demonstrating the presence of agglutinin (antibody) in the serum of an infected patient, against the H (flagellar) and O (somatic) antigens ofSalmonella typhi.

Its given in 12th NCERT.... widal test for typhoid

When a mosquito feeds on an infected person, the mosquito can become infected and can bite and infect others. The Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus mosquitoes transmit chikungunya. They also transmit dengue fever, another disease caused by a virus.

Pathogens

Pathogens are organisms that cause diseases in plants and animals. They include viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites. These microorganisms can infect the host organism and cause harm by disrupting normal physiological processes. Pathogens can cause a wide range of symptoms, from mild to severe, and can even be fatal in some cases.

Types of Pathogens

There are several types of pathogens that can cause diseases in plants and animals:

1. Bacteria: These are single-celled microorganisms that can cause a variety of diseases, from mild infections to severe illnesses. Some examples of bacterial diseases include tuberculosis, strep throat, and food poisoning.

2. Viruses: These are tiny, infectious agents that can cause diseases in animals and humans. They can infect cells and disrupt normal cellular functions. Some examples of viral diseases include the flu, HIV, and the common cold.

3. Fungi: These are multicellular organisms that can cause diseases in plants and animals. They can infect tissues and cause damage to the host organism. Some examples of fungal diseases include athlete's foot, ringworm, and candidiasis.

4. Parasites: These are organisms that live on or inside the host organism and can cause harm. They can be single-celled or multicellular. Some examples of parasitic diseases include malaria, giardiasis, and tapeworm infections.

Effects of Pathogens on Plants and Animals

Pathogens can have a variety of effects on plants and animals. In plants, they can cause wilting, yellowing, and stunted growth. They can also cause lesions, cankers, and other types of damage to the plant tissues. In animals, they can cause a wide range of symptoms, from mild to severe. Some examples of animal diseases caused by pathogens include:

1. Lyme disease: This is a bacterial disease that is transmitted to humans through the bite of an infected tick. It can cause fever, fatigue, and a characteristic bull's-eye rash.

2. Anthrax: This is a bacterial disease that can affect both animals and humans. It can cause fever, chills, and other symptoms, and can be fatal in some cases.

3. Rabies: This is a viral disease that affects the nervous system. It can be transmitted to humans through the bite of an infected animal and can be fatal if left untreated.

Prevention and Treatment

Preventing the spread of pathogens is important in controlling diseases in plants and animals. Some strategies for preventing the spread of pathogens include:

1. Quarantining infected individuals or plants to prevent the spread of the disease.

2. Disinfecting surfaces and equipment to kill pathogens.

3. Vaccinating individuals or plants to prevent infection.

4. Implementing good hygiene practices, such as washing hands and keeping living spaces clean.

Treatment of diseases caused by pathogens can vary depending on the type of pathogen and the severity of the disease. Some treatments include:

1. Antibiotics for bacterial infections.

2. Antiviral medications for viral infections.

3. Antifungal medications for fungal infections.

4. Parasiticides for parasitic infections.

Conclusion

Pathogens are organisms that can cause diseases in plants and animals. They can have a wide range of effects on their hosts, from mild to severe. Preventing the spread of pathogens is important in controlling diseases, and treatment can vary depending on the type of pathogen and the severity of the disease.

Most microbes belong to four major groups: bacteria, viruses, protozoa or fungi. (To find out more, see the “Bacteria/Viruses/Protozoa” fact sheets). Disease-causing microbes can also be called pathogens, germs or bugs and are responsible for causing infectious diseases.

Light and heavy chainas u know formula of antibody H2L2😀😀😀😀💯💯💯👍👍👍

Antibodies are produced by specialized white blood cells called B lymphocytes (or B cells). When an antigen binds to the B-cell surface, it stimulates the B cell to divide and mature into a group of identical cells called a clone.

B lymphocytes are the cells of the immune system that make antibodies to invading pathogens like viruses. They form memory cells that remember the same pathogen for faster antibody production in future infections.

Human immunodeficiency virus infection and acquired immune deficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) is a spectrum of conditions caused by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).Following initial infection, a person may not notice any symptoms or may experience a brief period of influenza-like illness. Typically, this is followed by a prolonged period with no symptoms. As the infection progresses, it interferes more with the immune system, increasing the risk of developing common infections such as tuberculosis, as well as other opportunistic infections, and tumors that rarely affect people who have working immune systems.[5] These late symptoms of infection are referred to as acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).This stage is often also associated with unintended weight loss.

Sporozoite is the infective stage of the malarial parasite. They are present in the saliva of infected female anopheles mosquito.

HIV is belong's to members of retro viruses..

The function of IgE antibody as mediators in allergic reactions of Type I is explained by their ability to interact both with antigen and with receptor molecules on the membrane of blood basophils and tissue mast cells. However, it is not understood how the interaction of an allergen with cell-bound IgE antibody will induce basophil (mast) cells to release a great number of biologically active substances of which some will be further discussed at this meeting, nor is it known what role the IgE-mast cell system plays in the development and control of a normal immune response.

Anti venom against snake poison contains antibodies.

Explanation:
Anti venom is a serum that is used to treat snake bites. It contains antibodies that are specifically produced to neutralize the venom of a particular snake species. The antibodies are produced by injecting a small amount of the snake venom into an animal, usually a horse, and then collecting the blood serum from the animal after a certain period of time. This serum contains the antibodies that have been produced in response to the venom.

The antibodies in the anti venom work by binding to the venom molecules and neutralizing their toxic effects. This prevents the venom from causing damage to the body and allows the body's own immune system to clear the venom from the bloodstream.

It is important to note that anti venom is specific to the species of snake that produced the venom. This means that anti venom for one species of snake will not be effective against the venom of another species. It is also important to administer anti venom as soon as possible after a snake bite, as the venom can rapidly spread through the body and cause severe damage if left untreated.

The primary immune response can be described as the first response of our body system to a newly introduced foreign agent, while the secondary immune response is defined as an intensified immune response to this previously exposed antigen. The primary and secondary immune response is carried out by following two types of lymphocytes;

1)B-Lymphocytes: responsible for the production of antibodies in our blood. the type of antibodies is IgA. IgD, IgE, IgG, IgM.

2)T-Lymphocytes: These are mediators cell-mediated immunity.

So, the correct answer is 'Option A

LSD obtained from fungi ..claviceps purpurea...

HIV is classified as a retrovirus because its genetic information is carried in RNA instead of DNA.

Explanation:
1. Retroviruses: Retroviruses are a family of RNA viruses that have the unique ability to convert their RNA genome into DNA inside the host cell. This reverse transcription process is carried out by the enzyme reverse transcriptase, which is encoded by the retroviral genome itself.

2. Genetic information: Genetic information in living organisms is typically stored in the form of DNA. However, retroviruses, including HIV, store their genetic information in the form of RNA.

3. RNA genome: HIV has a single-stranded RNA genome, which carries the necessary genetic information for the virus to replicate and produce new copies of itself.

4. Reverse transcription: When HIV infects a host cell, it uses its RNA genome as a template to synthesize a complementary DNA strand. This process is called reverse transcription. The viral enzyme reverse transcriptase catalyzes the synthesis of DNA from the viral RNA template.

5. Integration into host DNA: After the reverse transcription, the newly synthesized DNA molecule, known as the viral DNA or proviral DNA, is integrated into the host cell's DNA. This integration allows the viral genetic material to become a permanent part of the host cell's genome.

6. Transcription and translation: Once integrated, the viral DNA is transcribed and translated by the host cell's machinery, leading to the production of new viral proteins and eventually the assembly of new viral particles.

7. Replication cycle: The replication cycle of HIV involves reverse transcription, integration, transcription, translation, and assembly. This unique characteristic of retroviruses, including HIV, is why they are classified as retroviruses.

In conclusion, HIV is classified as a retrovirus because it carries its genetic information in the form of RNA, which undergoes reverse transcription to convert it into DNA inside the host cell. This DNA is then integrated into the host cell's genome and used to produce new viral particles.

Antibiotics and their discovery:

Antibiotics are a class of drugs that destroy or inhibit the growth of bacteria. They have revolutionized the field of medicine and have saved countless lives since their discovery. The first antibiotic was discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1928.

Alexander Fleming and his discovery:

Alexander Fleming was a Scottish biologist and pharmacologist who is credited with the discovery of the first antibiotic. In 1928, while working at St. Mary's Hospital in London, Fleming noticed that a mold called Penicillium notatum had contaminated one of his Petri dishes. He observed that the bacteria growing on the dish were actively killed by the mold, while the surrounding area remained free of bacteria.

Fleming's experiment was a breakthrough in the field of medicine, as it was the first time that anyone had demonstrated the ability of a substance to kill bacteria. He named the substance produced by the mold "penicillin" and began investigating its properties.

Further research and development:

Fleming's discovery of penicillin was a major breakthrough, but it was not until the 1940s that penicillin was mass-produced and began to be used widely as an antibiotic. Researchers Howard Florey and Ernst Chain at the University of Oxford developed methods for producing and purifying penicillin, and in 1942, the drug was used to successfully treat a British police officer who had been infected with a life-threatening bacterial infection.

Since then, the development of antibiotics has continued, with many new drugs being discovered and developed. Today, antibiotics are widely used to treat a variety of bacterial infections, and they have had a profound impact on human health and medicine.

IgG immunoglobin me sabse jyada 80% paye jate h . ye sbse chote imuno globin hote h kyuki enme paratopes kevel 2 hote h upr se ye monovalant hote h. chote size ke karan ye placenta ko cross kr jate h

It damage our immunity system from which any bacteria or virus can affect on us it's difficult to choose one tablet

"HIV " Attacks CD4 cells (T- helper, T- cells) .. this cells plays important role in immune system..

A tumor enclosed within a capsule is called benign tumor. Benign tumors normally remain confined to their original location and do not spread to other parts of the body and cause little damage.

A) Hypertension

On October 27, 1988, the UN General Assembly officially recognized that the World Health Organization declared December 1, 1988, to be World AIDS Day. World AIDS Day has also been observed on this date each year since then.

Causes of Cervical Cancer

Cervical cancer is a type of cancer that occurs in the cells of the cervix, which is the lower part of the uterus that connects to the vagina. The most common cause of cervical cancer is an infection with the human papillomavirus (HPV).

Human Papillomavirus (HPV)

HPV is a sexually transmitted infection that can cause changes in the cells of the cervix, which can lead to cancer. There are many different types of HPV, but some types are more likely to cause cancer than others. HPV is very common, and most people who are sexually active will contract the virus at some point in their lives. However, most people who contract HPV will not develop cervical cancer.

Other Risk Factors

In addition to HPV, there are other risk factors that can increase a woman's risk of developing cervical cancer. These include:

- Smoking
- Having a weakened immune system
- Having a history of sexually transmitted infections (STIs)
- Having multiple sexual partners
- Having sex at a young age
- Having a family history of cervical cancer

Prevention

The best way to prevent cervical cancer is to get vaccinated against HPV. The HPV vaccine is recommended for girls and boys between the ages of 11 and 12, although it can be given to people up to age 26. The vaccine is most effective when given before a person becomes sexually active.

Regular cervical cancer screening is also important for early detection of the disease. The Pap test, also known as a Pap smear, is a screening test that can detect abnormal cells in the cervix before they become cancerous. The American Cancer Society recommends that women begin getting Pap tests at age 21 and continue getting them every three years until age 29. After age 30, women can switch to getting a Pap test and an HPV test every five years. Women with certain risk factors may need to be screened more frequently.

Conclusion

In conclusion, cervical cancer is most commonly caused by an infection with the human papillomavirus (HPV). Other risk factors, such as smoking and having a weakened immune system, can also increase a woman's risk of developing cervical cancer. Prevention measures, such as getting vaccinated against HPV and getting regular cervical cancer screening, can help reduce the risk of developing the disease.

Heroine or smack is chemically ,diacetylmorphine which is a white, odourless, bitter crystalline compound.

Ringworm - fungal infection AIDS- HIV virus Common cold - Rhino Virus typhoid - Salmonella typhi ( bacteria) tuberculosis - mycobacterium tuberculosis ( bacteria) dysentery - it is of two types bacterial and amoebic therefore the viral diseases are AIDS and Common cold

Opioids are drugs that act on the central nervous system and gastrointestinal tract by binding to specific opioid receptors. These receptors are present in various parts of the body, including the brain, spinal cord, and digestive tract.

Mechanism of Action:

When opioids bind to the receptors, they activate a series of chemical reactions that lead to pain relief, sedation, and a sense of euphoria. Opioids work by mimicking the body's natural pain-relieving chemicals, such as endorphins.

Types of Opioids:

There are several types of opioids, including natural, semi-synthetic, and synthetic opioids. Examples of natural opioids include morphine and codeine, while semi-synthetic opioids include oxycodone and hydrocodone. Synthetic opioids include fentanyl and tramadol.

Medical Uses:

Opioids are commonly used in medical settings to treat pain, such as after surgery or for chronic pain conditions. They may also be used to treat coughing and diarrhea.

Risks and Side Effects:

However, opioids can be highly addictive and can lead to dependence, tolerance, and overdose. They can also cause a range of side effects, including drowsiness, constipation, nausea, and respiratory depression.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, opioids are a class of drugs that bind to specific opioid receptors in the central nervous system and gastrointestinal tract. They are commonly used to treat pain, but can also be highly addictive and have a range of side effects. It is important to use opioids only as prescribed and under the guidance of a healthcare professional.

Since 1988, 1st December is celebrated as International AIDS day to raise awareness about it's spread. HIV originated from CHIMPANZEES to Humans cross, in Democratic Republic of CONGO (known currently). Chimps who carried SIV(closely related to HIV) were being hunted & then eaten by people living there in 1920s.

Always undifferentiated , quickly dividing and metabolically more active cells be sensitive for radiations... and cancer cells undergo rapid division and and more active metabolically.....
so they can damaged easily by radiations....

If a person who is having heavy dose of alcohol or drug suddenly stop or cut back on its consumption, it is called as alcohol or drug withdrawal. Mild withdrawal syndrome includes anxiety, shakiness, headache, nausea, vomiting, insomnia, sweating. The severe syndrome includes hallucination, seizures.

Sickle cell anaemia is an autosomal recessive disorder. Sickle cell anaemia is due to the substitution of glutamic acid by valine at the 6th position of the beta-globin chain of haemoglobin. The gene mutation gives protection against malaria in the carriers.

Carcinoma refers to a malignant neoplasm of epithelial origin or cancer of the internal or external lining of the body. Carcinomas, malignancies of epithelial tissue, account for 80 to 90 percent of all cancer cases. Epithelial tissue is found throughout the body.