- Mendelian inheritance: The basic principles of inheritance discovered by Gregor Mendel, including segregation and independent assortment of alleles.
- Law of dominance: Dominant alleles mask the expression of recessive alleles.
- Law of segregation: Allele pairs separate during gamete formation, leading to the inheritance of one allele from each parent.
- Law of independent assortment: Genes for different traits segregate independently during the formation of gametes.


- Gene mutation: Changes in the DNA sequence that can result in new alleles and genetic variation.
- Polyploidy: The presence of more than two complete sets of chromosomes, which can lead to increased genetic diversity.
- Genetic recombination: The shuffling and exchange of genetic material during meiosis, resulting in new combinations of alleles.


- Linkage and recombination: The tendency of genes located closely on the same chromosome to be inherited together, and how the frequency of recombination can be used to determine the distance between genes.
- Molecular markers: DNA sequences or variations that can be used to identify and track specific genes or regions of the genome.


- Hybridization: The crossing of two genetically distinct plants to create offspring with desirable traits.
- Genetic engineering: The manipulation of an organism's genetic material to introduce or modify specific traits.
- Transgenic plants: Plants that have been genetically modified to express genes from other organisms, resulting in desirable traits such as pest resistance or increased yield.


- Genome sequencing: Determining the complete DNA sequence of an organism's genome.
- Functional genomics: Studying the functions and interactions of genes within an organism.
- Comparative genomics: Comparing the genomes of different species to understand evolutionary relationships and identify conserved genes and regions.


- Crop improvement: Using biotechnology techniques to develop crops with improved yield, nutritional content, and resistance to pests, diseases, and environmental stresses.
- Molecular markers in breeding: Utilizing molecular markers to assist in breeding programs by identifying desirable traits and selecting plants with those traits.
- Genetically modified organisms (GMOs): The development and use of genetically modified plants to address agricultural challenges and improve food production.

By understanding these important concepts and theories in plant genetics and biotechnology, candidates can gain a comprehensive understanding of the subject and perform well in Paper II of the UPSC Botany Optional Subject examination.