8. CONFRONTATION OF CULTURES

What do you know about Mayas? Describe. 
i. The Mayan culture of Mexico developed remarkably between the eleventh and fourteenth centuries, but in the sixteenth century, they had less political power than the Aztecs.
ii. Corn cultivation was central to their culture, and many religious ceremonies were centred on the planting, growing and harvesting of corn.
iii. Efficient agricultural production generated a surplus, which helped the ruling classes, priests and chiefs to invest in architecture and in the development of astronomy and mathematics.
iv. The Mayas devised a pictographic form of writing that has only been partially deciphered.

What do you know about the agriculture of the Inca civilisation?  
The basis of the Inca civilisation was agriculture. To cope with the infertile soil conditions, they terraced hillsides and developed systems of drainage and irrigation. It has been recently pointed out that in 1500, cultivation in the Andean highlands was much greater than what it is today. The Incas grew corn and potatoes and reared llamas for food and labour.
What do you know about the society of Aztec? Discuss. 
The society:
i. Aztec society was hierarchical. The nobility included those who were nobles by birth, priests, and others who had been awarded the rank.
ii. The hereditary nobility was a small minority who occupied the senior positions in the government, the army and the priesthood.
iii. The nobles chose from among them a supreme leader who ruled until his death. The king was regarded as the representative of the sun on earth.
iv. Warriors, priests and nobles were the most respected groups, but traders also enjoyed many privileges and often served the government as ambassadors and spies. Talented artisans, physicians and wise teachers were also respected.

Write a short note on the Mayan Culture.
1. The Mayan culture of Mexico developed remarkably between the eleventh and fourteenth centuries, but in the sixteenth century they had less political power than the Aztecs.
2. Corn cultivation was central to their culture, and many religious ceremonies were centred on the planting, growing and harvesting of corn.
3. Efficient agricultural production generated surplus, which helped the ruling classes, priests and chiefs to invest in architecture and in the development of astronomy and mathematics.
4. The Mayas devised a pictographic form of writing that has only been partially deciphered.

Discuss the importance of iron and foreign trade in the growth of African civilizations.
Iron has a great importance in the development of civilizations in Africa. The historians estimate that the people of Africa acquired knowledge about iron probably in 1000 B.C. They got this knowledge from the Egyptians.
Whatever significant contribution the iron has made in the development of the African civilization is depicted like this :
1. The people of Africa, made use of iron tools for clearing the forests and reaping the harvest. Consequently, agriculture developed here at a quick pace.
2. The iron tools helped a lot in manufacturing ivory goods and digging out gold reserves. Their use resulted in the development of other industries.
3. Several states of Africa extended their territories with the help of iron weapons.
4. A considerable progress tool place in the trade of the African civilizations because of iron. Iron ore of Africa began to be exported to the countries of Asia, Arab and Europe.

What do you know about Pizarro and the Incas? Explain.
Pizarro was uneducated and poor when he joined the army and found his way to the Caribbean Islands in 1502.
1. Pizarro had heard stories about the Inca kingdom as a land of silver and gold (El-dor-ado) He made repeated attempts to reach it from the Pacific. On one of his journeys back home. He was able to meet the Spanish king and show him beautifully designed gold jars of Inca workmanship.The king's greed was aroused, and he promised Pizarro the governorship of the Inca lands if he conquered it. Pizarro planned to follow Cortes' method but was disconcerted to find that the situation in the Inca empire was different.
2. ln 1532, Atahualpa secured the throne of the Inca empire after a civil war. Pizarro arrived on the scene and captured the king after setting a trap for him. The king offered a roomful of gold as ransom for his release – the most extravagant ransom recorded in history – but Pizarro did not honour his promise.
He had the king executed, and his followers went on a looting spree. This was followed by the occupation of the country. The cruelty of the conquerors provoked an uprising in 1534 that continued for two years, during which time thousands died in war and due to epidemics.
3. In another five years, the Spanish had located the vast silver mines in Potosi (in Upper Peru, modern Bolivia) and to work these they made the Inca people into slaves.

Enumerate the characteristic features of the Inca civilisation. 
Characteristic features of Inca Civilization :
(i) Palatial Buildings : The Inca Civilization and many tall buildings. These buildings include palaces, temples and forts which mostly made up of stones.
(iii) Beautiful Roads : There was a network of roads in the empire.
(iv) Engineering Excellence : The Inca people are famous for their engineering skill. Their temples, forts, bridges and means of irrigation are of a unique construction.
(v) Social Classes : The king was the head of the State. He inherited his power from the sun. After the king the nobles and priests came. The farmers and craftsmen were ordinary people.
(vi) Agriculture : There was ladder type agriculture on mountains. They grew maize, potatoes and beets.
(vii) Handicrafts : The Incas were perfect in pottery, weaving and making beautiful designs.
(viii) Script : They had no script. Their writing was of Quivu type.

Which methods were adopted by the Europeans to destroy and damage the ancient African Civilizations ? Describe in brief. Or What were the various factors that ruined the life of the African people from the 15th to 19th century ?
1. The Slave Trade : The Europeans, who had discovered and explored the continent of Africa indulged in the enslavement of African people. They sold them like sheep and goats in the foreign lands, particularly in America. This practice of slave trade completely ruined the social, economic and political systems of African people.
2. Colonies in Africa : Several European powers had grabbed many parts of Africa and made them their colonies. This dominance of the foreign powers completely destroyed the life and civilization of the people in this continent.
3. Export of Gold from Africa : The European exported and rather looted the gold dust and other precious metals in large quantity from Africa and brought them to their own countries. In this way the Africans became poorer and the Europeans richer.
4. Spread of Wrong Conceptions : The Europeans spread various misconceptions and wrong motions about the people of Africa. They were termed as barbaric and uncivilized.
5. The spread of Christianity : The Europeans sent their missionaries in many parts of Africa and preached the Christianity. They introduced their own languages and literature. This played significant part in damaging the Ancient African civilization.

What do you know about the Arawakians? Describe the facts with regard to their culture.
The Arawakan Lucas lived on a cluster of hundreds of small islands in the Caribbean Sea, today is known as the Bahamas, and the Greater Antilles. They had been expelled from the Lesser Antilles by the Caribs, a fierce tribe.In contrast to them, the Arawaks were a people who preferred negotiation to conflict. Skilled boat-builders, they sailed the open sea in dugout canoes (canoes made from hollow tree trunks). They lived by hunting, fishing and agriculture, growing corn, sweet potatoes, tubers and cassava.A central cultural value was the organisation of people to produce food collectively and to feed everyone in the community. They were organised under clan elders. Polygamy was common. The Arawaks were animists. As in many other societies, shamans played an important role as healers and intermediaries between this world and that of the supernatural.The Arawaks used gold for ornaments but did not attach the value to the metal that the Europeans did. They were quite happy to exchange gold for glass beads brought by the Europeans because these seemed so much more beautiful. The Arawaks were generous and were happy to collaborate with the Spanish in their search for gold. 

: What were the reasons of the Spanish expansion ?
1. Spanish expansion was based on a display of military strength with the use of gunpowder and of horses. The local people were compelled either to pay tribute or to work in gold and silver mines. The initial discovery was typically followed by establishing a small settlement, people by a few Spaniards who supervised the labour of the local inhabitants.Local chieftains were enlisted to exlplore new lands and, hopefully, more sources of gold. The greed for gold led to violent incidents provoking local resistance. The spanish friar Bartolome de las Casas, the most severe critic of the Spanish conquerors, observed that the Spanish often tested their swords on the naked flesh of the Arawaks.
2. The military repression and forced labour was added the ravages of disease. The diseases of the Old World, particularly smallpox wreaked havoc on the Arawaks whose lack of immunity resulted in large-scale deaths. The local people imagined these diseases were caused by "invisible bullets" with which the Spaniards attacked them. The extinction of the Arawaks and all traces of their way of life is a silent reminder of their tragic encounter with Spaniards.
3. The expeditions of Columbus were followed by a sustained and successful exploration of Central and South America. Within half of century, the Spanish had explored and laid claim to a vast area of the western hemisphere, from approximately latitudes 40 degrees north to 40 degrees south, without anyone challenging them.
4. Before this, the Spanish conquered lands of two great empires of the region. This was largely the work of two individuals : Hernan Cortes (1488 –1547) and Francisco Pizarro (1478-1541). Their explorations were financed by members of the landed gentry in Spain, officials of municipal councils and noblemen.Those joining the expditions supplied their own equipment in exchange for a share of the booty they expected from the conquests.

Christopher Columbus was a self-taught man who sought adventure and glory. Discuss it in detail.
1. Believing in prophecies, he was convinced that his destiny lay in discovering a route to the East (the "Indies") by sailing westwards. He was inspired by reading Imago Mundi (a work on astronomy and geography) by Cardinal Piere d’Ailly written in 1410.
He submitted his plans to the Portuguese Crown, only to have them turned down. He had better luck with the Spanish authorities who sanctioned a modest expedition that set sail from the port of Palos on 3 August, 1492.
2. Nothing, however, prepared Columbus and his crew for the long Atlantic crossing that they embarked upon, or for the destination that awaited them. The fleet was small, consisting of a small nao called Santa Maria, and two caravels (small light ships) named Pinta and Nina.
Columbus himself commanded the Santa Maria along with 40 capable sailors. The outward journey enjoyed fair trade winds but was long. For 33 days, the fleet sailed without sight of anything but sea and sky. By this time, the crew became restive and some of them demanded that they turn back.
3. On 12 October, 1492, they sighted land; they have reached what Columbus thought was India, but which was the island of Guanahani in the Bahamas. (It is said that this name was given by Columbus, who described the Islands as surrounded by shallow seas, baja mar in Spanish.)
They were welcomed by the Arawaks, who were happy to share their food and provisions; in fact, their generosity made a deep impression upon Columbus.
As he wrote in his log-book, “There are so ingenuous and free with all they have, that no one would belive it who has not seen of it, anything they possess, if it be asked of them, they never say no, on the contrary, they invite you to share it and show as much love as if their hearts went with it."

Why were Spanish and Portuguese rulers in particular so respective to the idea of funding a maritime quest ?
The European economy went through a decline from the mid-fourteenth to the mid-fifteenth centuries. Plague and wars led to depopulation in many parts of Europe, trade grew slack, and there was a shortage of gold and silver, used for making European coins. This situation was in stark contrast to the proceeding period (from the eleventh to the mid-fourteenth centuries) when growing trade had supported italian city-states and led to the accumulation of capital.
In the late fourteenth century, longdistance trade declined, and then became difficult after the Turks conquered Constantinople in 1453. Italians managed to do business with Turks, but were now required to pay higher taxes on trade
.The possibility that many more people could be brought into the fold of Christianity made many devout Christian Europeans ready to face adventure.
As it happened, the "Crusades" against the Turks began as a religious war, but they increased Europe's trade with Asia and created a taste for the products of Asia, especially spices.
If trade could be followed by political control, with European countries establishing "colonies" in regions with a warmer climate, they would benefit further.
When thinking of new regions where gold and spices might be found, one possibility was West Africa, where Europeans had not traded directly so far. Portugal a small country which had gained independence from Spain since 1139, and which had developed fishing and sailing skills, took the lead. Prince Henry of Portugal (called the Navigator) organised the coa
sting of West Africa and attacked Ceuta in 1415. After that, more expeditions were organised, and the Protuguese established a trading station in Cape Bojador in Africa. Africans were captured and enslaved, and gold dust yielded the precious metal.
In Spain, economic reasons encouraged individuals to become knights of the ocean. The memory of the Crusades and the success of the Reconguista fanned private ambitions and gave rise to contracts known as capitulaciones.
Under these contracts the Spanish ruler claimed rights of soverigntly over newly conquered territories and gave rewards to leaders of expeditions in the form of titles and the right to govern the conquered lands.