Geography: June 2024 UPSC Current Affairs | Current Affairs & Hindu Analysis: Daily, Weekly & Monthly PDF Download

Regional Rapid Transit System (RRTS)

Why in news?
Currently, the National Capital Region Transport Corporation (NCRTC) is developing 900 rainwater harvesting (RWH) pits along the Delhi-Ghaziabad-Meerut corridor in a move to ensure environmental sustainability.

What are the Key Facts Regarding the RRTS?

Background:

• In 2005, a government task force was formed to create a comprehensive transportation plan for the Delhi National Capital Region (NCR).
• This plan called the Integrated Transport Plan for NCR 2032, identified a need for a special rapid transit system to connect major cities within the region.

About RRTS:

• RRTS is a brand-new mode of public transportation designed specifically for the NCR.
• The Delhi-Meerut corridor RRTS is a rail-based semi-high-speed, high-frequency commuter transit system.

Advantages of RRTS:

• High Speed & Capacity:
• Dedicated Corridor:
• Environmental Impact:
• Economic Growth:
• Sustainable Future:

What are the Geographical Theories associated with RRTS?

Central Place Theory:

• This theory suggests settlements (cities) develop around central locations that provide services to surrounding areas.

Gravity Model:

• This model suggests the interaction between two places is influenced by their populations and the distance between them.

Diffusion Theory:

• This theory explains how ideas, innovations, and practices spread across space.

What are India’s Initiatives for Urban Transportation?

• PM-eBus Sewa
• The Gati Shakti Terminal (GCT) policy
• National Logistics Policy (NLP)
• Bharatmala Project
• Dedicated Freight Corridors
• Smart Cities

Conclusion

The Delhi-Meerut RRTS project, as a whole, embodies a future-oriented approach to urban development. By prioritizing sustainable practices like rainwater harvesting, the NCRTC sets a positive example for infrastructure projects across India. This commitment to environmental responsibility goes hand-in-hand with the project's aim to provide a high-speed, reliable, and efficient public transportation system, ultimately contributing to a cleaner and more livable NCR.

Earth Habitable 4 Billion Years Ago

Why in news?
Recently, studies on ancient rocks and minerals suggest that Earth may have been habitable around 4 billion years ago, with conditions suitable for life emerging relatively early in its history.

Key Highlights of the Recent Study

• Water Cycle and Life Emergence

• The interaction between freshwater and land, forming the water cycle, could have created favorable conditions for the emergence of life. This process might have started much earlier than previously believed, as suggested by the study on oxygen isotopes in ancient rocks.

• Implications for Early Life

• The findings indicate that the necessary conditions for life to thrive were present quite early in Earth's timeline, challenging previous assumptions about the timing of life emergence.

Key Facts About Origin of Earth

• Age of Earth

• While Earth is estimated to be 4.5 billion years old, evidence suggests that freshwater and dry land existed as far back as 4 billion years ago, indicating early habitability.

• Theories Related to the Origin of Earth

• Various theories like the Nebular Hypothesis and the Big Bang Theory have been proposed to explain the formation and evolution of the Earth and the universe.

Evolution of the Earth

• Formation of the Lithosphere: During its formation, Earth's elements segregated, leading to the development of the lithosphere and the crust as we know it today.
• Evolution of Earth's Atmosphere in Three Stages
  1. Loss of primordial atmosphere
  2. Contribution of the hot Earth's interior to atmosphere evolution
  3. Modification of the atmosphere by biological processes
• Development of the Hydrosphere: As Earth cooled, water vapor condensed and formed oceans, playing a crucial role in shaping the planet's hydrosphere.
• Impact of Biological Processes on Atmosphere: Photosynthesis significantly altered Earth's atmosphere by introducing oxygen, paving the way for the evolution of complex life forms.
• Origin of Life: The origin of life on Earth involved chemical reactions that led to the formation of complex organic molecules, a critical step in the emergence of life as we know it.

Rangelands and Pastoralism

Why in news?
Recently, the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) has released the Global Land Outlook Thematic Report on Rangelands and Pastoralists. As per the report, up to 50% of rangelands are degraded.

About

• UNCCD is a legally binding agreement that aims to protect and restore land, and combat desertification and drought.
• It was adopted in 1994 and became effective in 1996.
• The UNCCD is one of the three Rio Conventions. The other two are:
  1. the Convention on Biological Diversity (UNCBD); and
  2. the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
• The UNCCD focuses on drylands, which are arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas that are home to some of the most vulnerable ecosystems and peoples.

Secretariat

• The UNCCD's permanent Secretariat is located in Bonn, Germany.

Goals

• Protecting and restoring land
• Ensuring a safer, just, and more sustainable future
• Mitigating the impact of land degradation
• Providing food, water, shelter, and economic opportunity to all people

What are Rangelands?

• Rangelands are large areas of land that are covered by grasses, shrubs, woodlands, wetlands, and deserts and are used by wild animals and domestic livestock for grazing.
• They cover about 47% of the Earth's surface and 54% of the world's land.
• Rangelands are often characterized by low and erratic precipitation, poor drainage, rough topography, and low soil fertility.

Types

• Tallgrass and shortgrass prairies
• Desert grasslands and shrublands
• Woodlands
• Savannas
• Chaparrals
• Steppes
• Tundras
• Alpine communities
• Marshes and meadows etc.

Significance

• Rangelands are important for: Storing carbon; Providing habitats for wildlife; Supporting the world's largest rivers and wetlands; and Keeping carbon in the ground.
• These areas support many ecosystem services, including: grazing, wildlife habitat, watershed health, and recreational opportunities.
• These areas account for one sixth of global food production and represent nearly one third of the planet’s carbon reservoir.

Degradation of rangelands

• Almost half of the world’s rangelands are degraded due to climate change, population growth, land-use change and growing farmlands.
• Conversion of rangelands generates little public reaction
• When we cut down a forest, when we see a 100-year-old tree fall, it rightly evokes an emotional response in many of us.
• The conversion of ancient rangelands, on the other hand, happens in silence and generates little public reaction.

Pastoralists contribute a lot to the economy

• Pastoralists contribute to the economy through livestock rearing and milk production.
• The livestock sector of the economy contributes 4 per cent of national gross domestic product and 26 per cent of agricultural gross domestic product.
• The country also accounts for 20 per cent of the world’s livestock population.
• Pastoralists in India need better recognition of their rights and access to markets
• Millions of pastoralists in India who rear livestock and depend on grasslands, shrubs and plateaus for sustenance.
• They need better recognition of their rights and access to markets.
• Although their exact numbers in India are unknown, it is estimated that there are 20 million or more people in pastoralist communities.
• These include groups like the Maldharis, Van Gujjars, and Rabaris.

Pastoralists in India are a marginalised community

• Pastoralists are a marginalised community with little influence on policy decisions, resulting in uncertainty over access to common land and land rights.

Protection of grasslands in India

• Although grasslands are considered threatened ecosystems in India, they have been virtually overlooked in environmental conservation.
• Ecosystem restoration policies in India are in favour of forestry-based interventions.
• These includes converting natural grasslands into plantation forests or other uses.
• Less than 5 per cent of India’s grasslands fall within protected areas
• and the total grassland area declined from 18 to 12 million hectares between 2005 and 2015.

Successes highlighted by the report

• Some laws such as the Forest Rights Act 2006 have helped pastoralists obtain grazing rights across states in the country.
• E.g., Van Gujjars won grazing rights and received land titles in the Rajaji National Park, following a high court judgment.

Gradual shift in attitude

• The report noted that there was a gradual shift towards recognition of the socio-ecological role of rangelands and pastoralism in India.
• It cited the example of welfare schemes and assistance provided to pastoralists under the National Livestock Mission, Animal Husbandry Infrastructure Development Fund and the Rashtriya Gokul Mission on sustainable dairy production.

Tonga Volcano Impacting Weather

Why in news?
A recent study published in the Journal of Climate revealed that the eruption of the Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai volcano in January 2022 has had significant implications for global weather patterns.

Key Findings of the Study

• Unusual Climate Effects:

  The eruption of the Hunga Tonga volcano has led to unusual weather patterns, including last year's extraordinarily large ozone hole and the much wetter-than-expected summer of 2024. These effects have been due to the massive release of water vapour into the stratosphere rather than the typical smoke and sulphur dioxide associated with volcanic eruptions.

• Impact on Ozone Hole:

  The study suggests that the large ozone hole observed from August to December 2023 was at least partly influenced by the Hunga Tonga eruption. The water vapour released during the eruption contributed to chemical reactions that depleted the ozone layer over Antarctica. This effect was predicted by climate simulations conducted two years in advance.

• Southern Annular Mode:

  The presence of the ozone hole led to a positive phase of the Southern Annular Mode during the summer of 2024. This resulted in a higher chance of a wet summer in Australia, contrary to expectations based on the El Niño phenomenon. Again, this outcome was predicted by climate models well in advance.

• Atmospheric Wave Changes:

  The eruption appears to have altered the way atmospheric waves travel, influencing high and low-pressure systems that directly affect weather patterns. This suggests that the effects of the eruption may persist for years to come, affecting weather variability across different regions of the planet.

About Tonga

• Tonga is an island country in Polynesia, part of Oceania, with 171 islands, of which 45 are inhabited.
• The country spans approximately 800 km north-south and is surrounded by Fiji, Wallis and Futuna, Samoa, New Caledonia, Vanuatu, Niue, and Kermadec.
• Tonga has a tropical rainforest climate. The economy relies heavily on remittances from Tongans living abroad, particularly in Australia, New Zealand, and the United States.
• The economy focuses on small-scale industries like handicrafts and agriculture, with efforts to enhance sectors such as tourism and communications.
• The largest ethnic group in Tonga is Tongan, followed by a mix of Tongans, Chinese, Fijians, Europeans, and other Pacific Islanders.

Lost Nile Branch Key to Pyramid Construction

Why in news?
Recently, a study discovered an ancient Nile river branch that helped transport workers and materials to Egypt's pyramids, now buried under modern landscapes. Researchers employed technologies including satellite imagery, high-resolution digital elevation data, and historical maps to trace the path of the now-vanished Ahramat Branch of Nile River.

What are the Key Highlights of the Study?

• The revelation of the Ahramat Branch, a previously unknown Nile channel from Lisht (village) to Giza (city), illuminates its crucial role in transporting workers and materials for pyramid construction, offering insight into their geographic and logistical considerations.
• The study shows that natural events such as climate change, tectonic shifts, and human activities, along with environmental factors like desertification and changes in rainfall, have altered the Nile's landscape and branches over time, impacting the region's ecology and water systems.

What are Key Facts About Egyptian Pyramids?

• Pyramids of Egypt are massive, ancient stone structures built as tombs for pharaohs (ancient Egyptian rulers) and important figures during the Old Kingdom (roughly 2700–2200 BCE) and Middle Kingdom periods (2050–1650 BCE).
• There are over 118 identified pyramids in Egypt, but the most famous are the three pyramids at Giza:
  1. Great Pyramid of Giza: The oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World and the largest pyramid ever built. It was constructed for Pharaoh Khufu (Cheops).
  2. Pyramid of Khafre (Chephren): This pyramid appears larger than the Great Pyramid due to its steeper angle and the presence of the Sphinx, a massive statue with a human head and a lion's body, located nearby.
  3. Pyramid of Menkaure (Mycerinus): The smallest of the three main pyramids at Giza, built for Pharaoh Menkaure.

Catatumbo lightning

Why in news?
Catatumbo lightning is a fascinating natural phenomenon that occurs over the Catatumbo River in Venezuela, where lightning strikes almost continuously. This unique event is caused by a convergence of various factors creating ideal conditions for lightning.

Overview

A convergence of several factors give rise to the unique conditions required for Catatumbo lightning.

About Catatumbo lightning

It is a mesmerizing natural phenomenon that occurs over the Catatumbo River in Venezuela, where lightning strikes almost continuously. This phenomenon primarily occurs at the mouth of the river where it meets Lake Maracaibo, the largest lake in Venezuela.

How does it occur?

Warm, moist air from the Caribbean Sea is pushed towards the Andes mountains, colliding with cooler air descending from the peaks. This collision creates a perfect storm, forcing the warmer air to rise rapidly, cool, and condense, forming towering cumulonimbus clouds. Strong winds and temperature differences generate electrical charges within these clouds, sometimes reaching heights of more than 5 km, resulting in lightning strikes.

Key facts about Lake Maracaibo

• It is located in Venezuela and is the largest lake in Latin America.
• It is among the oldest water bodies on the planet.
• Its proximity to the Andes Mountains and the Caribbean Sea creates a unique geographical setup, crucial for the frequency of lightning in the region.

Critical Minerals 

Why in news?
Recently, the Cabinet has set the royalty rate for 12 critical minerals, including beryllium, cadmium, cobalt, gallium, indium, rhenium, selenium, tantalum, tellurium, titanium, tungsten, and vanadium. These minerals play a crucial role in national security, economic growth, and the development of industries like high-tech electronics, telecommunications, transportation, and defense.

What are Critical Minerals? - A Spotlight on Critical Minerals

• These minerals are essential for national security, economic growth, and renewable energy.
• The development of various industries such as high-tech electronics, telecommunications, transportation, and defense relies on these critical minerals.

Identified Critical Minerals

The Expert Committee under the Ministry of Mines has identified 30 critical minerals for India, including antimony, beryllium, bismuth, cobalt, copper, gallium, germanium, graphite, hafnium, indium, lithium, molybdenum, niobium, nickel, PGE, phosphorus, potash, REE, rhenium, silicon, strontium, tantalum, tellurium, tin, titanium, tungsten, vanadium, zirconium, selenium, and cadmium.

What are Royalty Rates? Payments for Resource Extraction and Mineral Rights Under MMDRA 1957

• Royalty rates are fees paid to the government for extracting resources or minerals from designated areas.
• The second schedule of MMDRA 1957 specifies mineral royalty rates.
• These critical minerals have been removed from the list of atomic minerals, allowing the commercial sector to bid for them.

Key Features of Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Amendment Act 2023

1. Provision
   • The Act lists 29 minerals in the Seventh Schedule for which an exploration license will be granted, including gold, silver, copper, cobalt, nickel, lead, potash, and rock phosphate.
   • Minerals like beryllium and beryl, niobium lithium, zirconium, and tantallium are no longer categorized as atomic minerals.
2. Validity of Exploration License: The Act grants a five-year exploration license.
3. Auction of Certain Minerals by the Central Government:
   • State governments are responsible for conducting concession auctions except in specific cases where the union government auctions composite licenses and mining leases for strategic minerals like lithium, cobalt, nickel, phosphate, potash, tin, and phosphate.
4. Incentive for Exploration Licensee: If confirmed through exploration, the state government must hold a mining lease auction within six months. A portion of the auction proceeds will be awarded to the licensee.

Exploring Critical Mineral Uses and Estimated Reserves in India

• Lithium Reserve:
  • J&K and Chhattisgarh's lithium reserves are set for auction.
  • J&K Block contains an estimated resource of 5.9 million metric tonnes of bauxite column, including over 70,000 tonnes of titanium metal and 3,400 tonnes of lithium metal.
  • Odisha Block holds an inferred value of 3,908 tonnes of nickel metal content or 2.05 million tonnes of nickel ore.
  • Odisha block is the only block with copper reserves.

Periyar River

Why in news?
A mass fish kill struck the Periyar river in Kerala recently, leaving a path of destruction and sparking outrage.

• About Periyar River:
  1. Longest river in Kerala: The Periyar River is the longest river in the state of Kerala.
  2. Course:
     • Rises in the Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu.
     • Flows in the north direction to the Periyar National Park into the Periyar Lake, which is a man-made reservoir created in 1895.
     • Water from here flows into the Vembanad Lake and finally into the Arabian Sea.
     • A tunnel carries water eastward through the mountains to the Vaigai River in Tamil Nadu for irrigation purposes.
     • It has a total length of 244 kms and drains an area of 5,398 sq km.
  3. Significance: Known as the 'Lifeline of Kerala' due to its significant economic contribution to the state.
  4. Idukki Dam:
     • Largest dam and hydroelectric project in Kerala.
     • One of the highest arch dams in Asia.
  5. Other Dams: Several other dams are constructed across the river including Neriyamangalam, Pallivasal, Panniyar, Kundalam, Chenkulam, and Mullaperiyar.
  6. Tributaries: Major tributaries include the Muthirapuzha River, Mullayar River, Cheruthoni River, Perinjankutti River, and the Edamala River.

Lost Nile Branch Key to Pyramid Construction

Why in News?
Recently, a study found an ancient Nile river branch that aided in transporting workers and materials to Egypt's pyramids, now hidden beneath modern landscapes. Researchers used technologies like satellite imagery, high-resolution digital elevation data, and historical maps to trace the path of the vanished Ahramat Branch of Nile River.

Key Highlights of the Study

• The discovery of the Ahramat Branch, an unknown Nile channel from Lisht to Giza, sheds light on its crucial role in pyramid construction logistics.
• Natural events such as climate change, tectonic shifts, human activities, desertification, changes in rainfall, have altered the Nile's landscape over time, impacting the region's ecology and water systems.

• Egyptian pyramids are massive ancient stone structures built as tombs for pharaohs and important figures during the Old Kingdom and Middle Kingdom periods.
• There are over 118 identified pyramids in Egypt, with the most famous being the pyramids at Giza:
  1. Great Pyramid of Giza: The oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, constructed for Pharaoh Khufu (Cheops).
  2. Pyramid of Khafre (Chephren): Appears larger than the Great Pyramid due to its steeper angle and the presence of the Sphinx, a massive statue with a human head and a lion's body nearby.
  3. Pyramid of Menkaure (Mycerinus): The smallest of the three main pyramids at Giza, built for Pharaoh Menkaure.