All questions of Biology for CDS Exam

Average Calories Required in Urban Areas of India

According to the National Institute of Nutrition, the accepted average calorie requirement for an adult in India is 2100 calories per day. This is based on the sedentary lifestyle of urban populations. However, the calorie requirement can vary depending on several factors such as age, gender, physical activity, and health conditions.

Factors affecting Average Calorie Requirement

Age: The calorie requirement of an individual decreases with age as the metabolism slows down. Therefore, older adults require fewer calories than younger adults.

Gender: Men generally require more calories than women due to their larger body size and higher muscle mass.

Physical Activity: Individuals who engage in physical activities or have a physically demanding job may require more calories than those who lead a sedentary lifestyle.

Health Conditions: People with certain health conditions such as diabetes, thyroid disorders or obesity may require a different calorie intake based on their medical needs.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the accepted average calorie requirement for an adult in urban areas of India is 2100 calories per day. However, it is important to note that this requirement can vary depending on several factors such as age, gender, physical activity, and health conditions. It is important to maintain a balanced diet and consult a healthcare professional to determine the appropriate calorie intake for individual needs.

Large Spectrum Antibiotic

A large spectrum antibiotic refers to an antibiotic that is effective against a wide range of bacteria, including both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. It is a broad-spectrum antibiotic that can target and eliminate a broader range of bacterial infections compared to narrow-spectrum antibiotics. Among the options provided, the correct answer is option C - Ampicillin.

Explanation:

1. Paracetamol:
- Paracetamol is not an antibiotic but an analgesic and antipyretic drug.
- It is commonly used to relieve pain and reduce fever but has no antibacterial properties.

2. Penicillin:
- Penicillin is an antibiotic derived from the fungus Penicillium.
- It is effective against many Gram-positive bacteria, including Streptococcus and Staphylococcus species.
- However, it has limited activity against Gram-negative bacteria.

3. Ampicillin:
- Ampicillin is a broad-spectrum antibiotic belonging to the penicillin group.
- It is effective against a wide range of bacteria, including both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.
- Ampicillin works by interfering with the bacterial cell wall synthesis, leading to bacterial cell death.
- It is commonly used to treat various infections, including respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, and gastrointestinal infections.

4. Chloramphenicol:
- Chloramphenicol is a broad-spectrum antibiotic that inhibits bacterial protein synthesis.
- It is effective against many Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.
- However, due to its potential side effects, including bone marrow suppression, it is now reserved for the treatment of serious infections when other antibiotics are not effective.

Conclusion:

Among the given options, ampicillin is the correct answer as it is a large spectrum antibiotic that can effectively target a wide range of bacteria, including both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.

Pathogenic bacteria secrete Antigens

Antigens are substances that are foreign to the body and can trigger an immune response. Pathogenic bacteria secrete antigens that are recognized by the immune system as foreign and trigger an immune response to eliminate the bacteria from the body. This immune response can be in the form of the production of antibodies or activation of immune cells like T cells and B cells.

Antigens are important for the diagnosis of infectious diseases. When a person is infected with a particular pathogenic bacterium, their immune system produces antibodies specific to that bacterium. These antibodies can be detected in the blood or other bodily fluids and used to diagnose the infection. This is the basis of various diagnostic tests like ELISA, Western blot, etc.

Pathogenic bacteria can also secrete virulence factors like toxins, enzymes, and lipopolysaccharides that can cause damage to the host tissues and evade the immune system. These virulence factors can also act as antigens and trigger an immune response.

In conclusion, pathogenic bacteria secrete antigens that are recognized by the immune system and trigger an immune response to eliminate the bacteria from the body. Antigens are important for the diagnosis of infectious diseases and can also act as virulence factors.

Social Group Vulnerable to Poverty

Scheduled caste and scheduled tribe households are the social group vulnerable to poverty. Here's why:

Historical Background
- Scheduled castes and scheduled tribes are historically disadvantaged groups in India.
- They have been subjected to discrimination, social exclusion, and economic exploitation for centuries.

Current Scenario
- Even though India has made significant progress in reducing poverty over the years, scheduled castes and scheduled tribes continue to be the poorest and most vulnerable groups in the country.
- According to the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO), the poverty rate among scheduled castes and scheduled tribes is higher than the national average.
- They are also more likely to live in rural areas, where poverty rates are generally higher than in urban areas.

Reasons for Vulnerability
- Lack of access to education and healthcare: Scheduled castes and scheduled tribes have lower literacy rates and are more likely to suffer from malnutrition and diseases.
- Limited opportunities for employment: They are often excluded from formal sector jobs and are forced to engage in low-paying, informal sector work.
- Landlessness: Many scheduled castes and scheduled tribes are landless or have small landholdings, which makes them vulnerable to fluctuations in crop yields and prices.

Government Initiatives
- The Indian government has implemented various programs and schemes to address the issue of poverty among scheduled castes and scheduled tribes.
- Some of these include the Scheduled Caste Sub Plan (SCSP), Tribal Sub Plan (TSP), National Rural Livelihoods Mission (NRLM), and National Urban Livelihoods Mission (NULM).

Conclusion
- Despite the government's efforts, scheduled castes and scheduled tribes continue to face significant challenges in overcoming poverty.
- More needs to be done to address the root causes of their vulnerability, including discrimination, lack of access to education and healthcare, and limited employment opportunities.

Understanding Body Builders
In the context of nutrition, the term "body builder" refers to substances that are vital for muscle growth and repair. Among the options provided, protein is the most significant.
Why Protein is Considered a Body Builder
- Muscle Repair and Growth: Protein is essential for the repair of damaged muscle fibers after exercise. When you work out, particularly in strength training, you create tiny tears in your muscle fibers. Protein helps to repair these tears, leading to muscle growth.
- Amino Acids: Proteins are made up of amino acids, which are the building blocks of muscles. There are 20 different amino acids, nine of which are essential and must be obtained from the diet. These essential amino acids are critical for muscle synthesis.
- Satiety and Metabolism: Consuming protein can increase feelings of fullness, helping in weight management. Additionally, a higher protein intake can boost metabolic rate, which is beneficial for bodybuilders aiming to reduce body fat while retaining muscle.
Other Nutrients' Roles
- Carbohydrates: While they provide energy for workouts, they do not contribute directly to muscle building.
- Vitamins: These are crucial for overall health and metabolic functions but do not directly build muscle.
- Fats: Healthy fats are important for hormone production and overall energy, but they are not primary muscle builders.
In summary, protein is known as a body builder due to its critical role in muscle repair, growth, and overall athletic performance.

**Explanation:**

Antibiotics are medications that are used to treat bacterial infections. They work by killing or inhibiting the growth of bacteria. However, not all medications are antibiotics. Aspirin, which is the correct answer in this case, is not an antibiotic.

**Reasoning:**

To understand why aspirin is not an antibiotic, we need to clarify what aspirin is and how it works.

**1. What is Aspirin?**

Aspirin, also known as acetylsalicylic acid, is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID). It is commonly used to relieve pain, reduce inflammation, and lower fever. Aspirin is widely available over-the-counter and is used for a variety of purposes, including relieving headaches, reducing pain and swelling, and preventing heart attacks and strokes in certain individuals.

**2. How Does Aspirin Work?**

Aspirin works by inhibiting the production of certain chemicals in the body called prostaglandins. Prostaglandins are involved in various processes, including inflammation, pain, and fever. By reducing the production of prostaglandins, aspirin can help alleviate pain and reduce inflammation.

**3. Difference Between Antibiotics and Aspirin:**

While antibiotics are specifically designed to target and kill bacteria, aspirin does not have any direct effect on bacteria. Aspirin primarily functions as an analgesic (pain reliever), antipyretic (fever reducer), and anti-inflammatory agent. It does not possess the ability to kill bacteria or inhibit their growth like antibiotics do.

**4. Antibiotics vs. Aspirin Usage**

Antibiotics are prescribed by healthcare professionals to treat bacterial infections, such as urinary tract infections, respiratory tract infections, and skin infections. On the other hand, aspirin is commonly used for conditions unrelated to bacterial infections, such as headaches, arthritis, and heart disease prevention.

In conclusion, while penicillin, ampicillin, and streptomycin are all examples of antibiotics used to treat bacterial infections, aspirin is not an antibiotic. Aspirin works as a pain reliever, fever reducer, and anti-inflammatory agent, but it does not possess the properties necessary to kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria.

Role of the Pancreas in Blood Sugar Control
The pancreas is a vital organ in the regulation of blood sugar levels. It performs essential functions related to both digestion and hormonal regulation, specifically in the context of glucose metabolism.
Insulin Production
- The pancreas contains clusters of cells known as the islets of Langerhans, which are responsible for producing hormones.
- Beta cells within these islets secrete insulin, a hormone that lowers blood sugar levels by facilitating the uptake of glucose into cells.
Glucagon Function
- The pancreas also produces glucagon, secreted by alpha cells in the islets.
- Glucagon raises blood sugar levels by promoting the conversion of glycogen (stored glucose) in the liver back to glucose, which is then released into the bloodstream.
Balance and Homeostasis
- The interplay between insulin and glucagon maintains blood sugar homeostasis. When blood sugar rises after eating, insulin is released to decrease it. Conversely, when blood sugar drops, glucagon is released to elevate it.
- This balance is crucial for overall health, as improper regulation can lead to conditions such as diabetes.
Conclusion
In summary, the pancreas is essential for controlling blood sugar levels through the secretion of insulin and glucagon. Its ability to regulate these hormones directly impacts an individual’s metabolic health, making it the key organ in blood sugar management.

Pellagra is a skin disease caused by a deficiency of niacin (vitamin B3) in the diet. It is characterized by various symptoms, including dermatitis, diarrhea, dementia, and death if left untreated. The correct answer is option 'D' - Pellagra.

Below is a detailed explanation of why Pellagra is a skin disease:

Heading: Pellagra - A Skin Disease

Pellagra is a skin disease caused by a deficiency of niacin (vitamin B3) in the diet. It primarily affects areas of the skin exposed to sunlight, such as the face, neck, hands, and feet. The term "pellagra" comes from the Italian words "pelle" (skin) and "agra" (rough), referring to the rough and scaly skin lesions that are characteristic of the condition.

Heading: Symptoms of Pellagra

Pellagra presents with a variety of symptoms, including:

1. Dermatitis: Pellagra causes a characteristic dermatitis, which is a skin inflammation. The affected areas may be red, scaly, and itchy. The skin may become rough and thickened over time.

2. Diarrhea: Pellagra can also lead to gastrointestinal symptoms, including chronic diarrhea. The diarrhea may be severe and persistent, leading to dehydration and electrolyte imbalances if left untreated.

3. Dementia: In advanced cases, pellagra can affect the nervous system and lead to cognitive impairment. Symptoms may include confusion, memory loss, irritability, and even psychosis.

4. Other symptoms: Pellagra can also cause fatigue, loss of appetite, weight loss, and sensitivity to sunlight.

Heading: Causes and Risk Factors

Pellagra is caused by a deficiency of niacin in the diet. Niacin is an essential nutrient that plays a crucial role in the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. It is found in various foods, including meat, fish, poultry, legumes, and grains.

Certain factors can increase the risk of developing pellagra, including:

1. Poor diet: Individuals who have a diet that is low in niacin-rich foods are at a higher risk.

2. Alcoholism: Alcohol can interfere with niacin absorption and increase the risk of pellagra in heavy drinkers.

3. Malabsorption disorders: Certain medical conditions, such as Crohn's disease, celiac disease, and gastrointestinal surgeries, can impair the absorption of niacin and increase the risk of deficiency.

Heading: Treatment and Prevention

The treatment for pellagra involves addressing the underlying niacin deficiency. This can be achieved through dietary changes and niacin supplementation. Increasing the intake of niacin-rich foods or taking niacin supplements can help alleviate the symptoms and prevent further complications.

Prevention of pellagra involves maintaining a well-balanced diet that includes adequate amounts of niacin. It is important to consume a variety of foods from different food groups to ensure sufficient intake of all essential nutrients, including niacin.

In conclusion, pellagra is a skin disease caused by a deficiency of niacin in the diet. It is characterized by dermatitis, diarrhea, and dementia if left untreated. Prompt diagnosis and appropriate treatment can help alleviate the symptoms and prevent complications.

Tricalcium phosphate
Tricalcium phosphate is the main mineral component found in our bones and teeth. It is a calcium salt that makes up a significant portion of the composition of these structures.

Composition
- Tricalcium phosphate is composed of calcium and phosphate ions, which are essential for the strength and structure of bones and teeth.
- It provides rigidity and stability to the skeletal system, allowing for support and protection of vital organs.

Role in Bones and Teeth
- In bones, tricalcium phosphate helps to maintain their strength and density, preventing fractures and ensuring proper functioning of the skeletal system.
- In teeth, it plays a crucial role in the formation of enamel, which is the hardest substance in the human body and protects the teeth from wear and decay.

Importance of Tricalcium Phosphate
- Tricalcium phosphate is vital for overall bone health and mineralization, as it helps to maintain the balance of calcium and phosphate in the body.
- It is often used in dietary supplements and dental products to promote bone and teeth health.
In conclusion, tricalcium phosphate is a crucial mineral component that contributes to the strength, structure, and health of our bones and teeth. Its presence is essential for maintaining the integrity of the skeletal system and ensuring the longevity of our teeth.

**Chromosomes are made up of DNA and Protein**

Chromosomes are the structures found in the nucleus of cells that contain genetic information. They are composed of a combination of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and proteins. Let's explore this in detail:

**1. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid):**
- DNA is a long, double-stranded molecule that carries the genetic instructions for the development and functioning of all living organisms.
- It consists of a sequence of nucleotides, which are the building blocks of DNA. These nucleotides consist of a sugar molecule (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
- The nitrogenous bases in DNA are adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G). The sequence of these bases determines the genetic code.
- DNA is responsible for storing and transmitting genetic information from one generation to the next.

**2. Proteins:**
- Proteins are large, complex molecules that perform various functions in the body, such as structural support, enzymatic activity, and cell signaling.
- In the context of chromosomes, proteins play a crucial role in organizing and condensing DNA to form a compact structure.
- The proteins associated with DNA in chromosomes are called histones. Histones help in packaging the DNA into a highly compact and organized structure, allowing it to fit inside the nucleus.
- The DNA wraps around these histone proteins to form a structure called nucleosomes, which further condense to form chromatin fibers.
- The chromatin fibers then undergo further condensation and coiling to form the visible structures known as chromosomes during cell division.

**3. DNA-Protein Interaction:**
- The interaction between DNA and proteins is essential for the proper functioning of chromosomes. The proteins help in maintaining the stability, organization, and accessibility of DNA.
- The packaging of DNA into chromosomes allows for the efficient storage and transmission of genetic information during cell division.
- Additionally, proteins associated with chromosomes play a role in gene regulation, DNA replication, and repair processes.

In conclusion, chromosomes are composed of a combination of DNA and proteins. DNA carries the genetic information, while proteins help in organizing and compacting the DNA into a functional structure. The intricate interplay between DNA and proteins ensures the proper functioning and transmission of genetic material in cells.

Introduction:
Cell division is a fundamental process in living organisms that allows growth, development, and repair. It involves the replication and distribution of genetic material to ensure the formation of two daughter cells. Several plant hormones play critical roles in regulating and controlling cell division. Among these hormones, cytokinins are specifically concerned with cell division.

Cytokinins:
Cytokinins are a group of plant hormones that regulate various physiological processes, including cell division, cell differentiation, and shoot growth. They are synthesized in actively growing tissues, such as root tips, developing embryos, and young leaves. Cytokinins are transported from the site of synthesis to other parts of the plant, where they exert their effects.

Role in Cell Division:
Cytokinins promote cell division by stimulating the synthesis of proteins that are involved in cell cycle progression. They activate the expression of genes required for cell division and inhibit the expression of genes that suppress cell division. Cytokinins also regulate the activity of cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), which are essential for cell cycle control.

Interaction with other Hormones:
Cytokinins interact with other plant hormones, such as auxins, to regulate cell division. Auxins promote cell elongation, while cytokinins promote cell division. The balance between these two hormones is crucial for proper growth and development. The ratio of cytokinins to auxins determines the type of growth and differentiation that occurs in plant tissues.

Effect of Exogenous Cytokinins:
Exogenous application of cytokinins can have significant effects on cell division. When applied to plant tissues, cytokinins can stimulate the formation of callus, which is a mass of undifferentiated cells capable of proliferation. This property of cytokinins has been exploited in tissue culture techniques for plant propagation and genetic transformation.

Conclusion:
In summary, cytokinins are plant hormones that play a vital role in cell division. They promote cell division by regulating gene expression and controlling the activity of CDKs. Cytokinins also interact with other hormones, such as auxins, to ensure proper growth and development. Understanding the role of cytokinins in cell division is essential for studying plant growth, tissue culture techniques, and plant breeding.

The Botanical Survey of India (BSI) is headquartered in Kolkata, West Bengal. Let's explore the reasons behind this answer:

1. Origin and Establishment:
- The BSI was established on 13 February 1890 with the goal of exploring and documenting the plant resources of the Indian subcontinent.
- It was originally established as the 'Imperial Forest Research Institute' and was later renamed the 'Botanical Survey of India' in 1916.
- Given its historical significance, the BSI was established in Kolkata, which was the capital of British India at that time.

2. Importance of Kolkata for Botanical Research:
- Kolkata has a long history of botanical research and education. It is home to several renowned educational institutions and research centers that focus on botanical studies.
- The Indian Botanic Garden in Kolkata, also known as the Acharya Jagadish Chandra Bose Indian Botanic Garden, is one of the oldest and largest botanical gardens in India. It serves as an important center for plant taxonomy and conservation.
- Kolkata's favorable climate and geographical location make it an ideal hub for botanical research. The region has diverse ecosystems ranging from mangroves to wetlands, providing a rich variety of plant species to study and document.

3. Administrative Convenience:
- Kolkata's central location within the Indian subcontinent makes it easily accessible for researchers and scientists from different parts of the country.
- The city is well-connected by air, rail, and road networks, facilitating the movement of experts, researchers, and plant specimens to and from the BSI headquarters.
- Kolkata also offers a supportive infrastructure with various amenities required for running an organization of such national importance.

In conclusion, the Botanical Survey of India is headquartered in Kolkata due to its historical significance, the city's strong tradition of botanical research, and its convenient location for administrative purposes.

Calcium Carbonate in Oyster Shells
Oyster shells are primarily composed of calcium carbonate, making them the correct answer to the question. Let's explore why oyster shells contain this compound in detail.

Composition of Oyster Shells
- Oyster shells are made up of calcium carbonate in the form of calcite crystals. This compound gives the shells their characteristic hard and durable structure.
- Calcium carbonate is a common mineral found in the shells of various marine organisms, including oysters, clams, and corals.

Function of Calcium Carbonate
- Calcium carbonate provides structural support and protection to the soft tissues of the oyster. It forms a hard shell that shields the animal from predators and environmental factors.
- The presence of calcium carbonate also helps regulate the internal pH levels of the oyster, maintaining homeostasis within the organism.

Formation of Oyster Shells
- Oyster shells are formed through a process called biomineralization, where calcium carbonate is deposited in layers by the oyster's mantle tissue.
- The mantle secretes a protein matrix that serves as a scaffold for the crystallization of calcium carbonate, leading to the growth of the shell over time.

Uses of Calcium Carbonate
- Calcium carbonate is not only essential for the structure of oyster shells but also has various industrial applications. It is used in the production of cement, paper, plastics, and dietary supplements.
- In agriculture, calcium carbonate is added to soil to improve pH levels and provide essential nutrients to plants.
In conclusion, oyster shells are primarily composed of calcium carbonate, which plays a crucial role in the formation and function of these marine organisms' protective coverings.

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