- Fold mountains are formed by the folding and uplift of rock layers due to tectonic forces.
- The process begins with the compression and convergence of tectonic plates, causing the crust to buckle and fold.
- Over time, these folded layers of rock are uplifted and form mountain ranges.
- Examples of fold mountains include the Himalayas, the Alps, and the Andes.


- Fault mountains are formed along fault lines, where tectonic forces cause rocks to fracture and move.
- When the movement along a fault line is vertical, it can result in the formation of fault-block mountains.
- These mountains are characterized by steep, rugged cliffs on one side and a gently sloping surface on the other.
- The Sierra Nevada in the United States is an example of a fault-block mountain range.


- Volcanic mountains are formed through volcanic activity.
- When molten rock, called magma, rises to the surface, it can erupt and form a volcano.
- Over time, repeated eruptions can build up a cone-shaped mountain around the volcanic vent.
- Examples of volcanic mountains include Mount Fuji in Japan and Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania.


- Plateaus are large, elevated flat areas of land that are generally surrounded by steep slopes or cliffs.
- They are formed through various processes such as tectonic uplift, volcanic activity, or erosion.
- Tectonic uplift can cause the crust to rise and form a plateau, while volcanic activity can result in the accumulation of lava flows that build up a plateau.
- Erosion over millions of years can also create plateaus by wearing away the surrounding areas, leaving behind a flat-topped landscape.
- The Deccan Plateau in India and the Colorado Plateau in the United States are examples of plateaus.


- Coastal landforms are shaped by the interaction of land, sea, and various erosional and depositional processes.
- Examples of coastal landforms include cliffs, beaches, spits, and deltas.
- Cliffs are formed by the erosion of rocks along the coastline by waves and currents.
- Beaches are formed by the deposition of sand and other sediments along the shore.
- Spits are narrow strips of land that extend from the coastline into the sea due to longshore drift.
- Deltas are formed at the mouths of rivers, where sediments carried by the river are deposited and build up over time.
- Each of these landforms is a result of the dynamic processes shaping the coastal environment.

Overall, the syllabus for UPSC includes the study of various landforms and their formation processes, including fold mountains, fault mountains, volcanic mountains, plateaus, and coastal landforms. Understanding these landforms and the processes that shape them is crucial for comprehending the Earth's geology and the forces that have shaped our planet's landscape over millions of years.