All questions of Climatology for UPSC CSE Exam

Both options are correct The organic compounds are the amino acids, nucleic acids, proteins, vitamins and pigments.Generally, nitrogen is usable only after it is fixed. 90% of fixed nitrogen is biological.Only a few types of organisms like certain species of soil bacteria and blue-green algae are capable of utilising it directly in its gaseous form.

All statements are correct; hence answer is (d). There are six major controls of the climate of any place. They are latitude, altitude, pressure and wind system, distance from the sea (continentality), ocean currents and relief features.

Classification of Forests based on Leaf Shedding:
Forests are broadly classified based on their leaf shedding patterns. The shedding of leaves is influenced by various factors, including the availability of moisture and latitudinal variation.

1. Availability of Moisture:
The availability of moisture is a crucial factor that influences the shedding of leaves in forests. The level of moisture in the environment affects the growth and development of plants. In areas with abundant moisture, such as rainforests, the trees tend to retain their leaves throughout the year. This is because the trees have a constant supply of water and nutrients, allowing them to maintain their foliage. On the other hand, in regions with limited moisture, such as dry or arid areas, trees shed their leaves as a survival mechanism. By shedding their leaves, trees reduce their water loss through transpiration and prevent excessive moisture loss during periods of drought. Therefore, the availability of moisture plays a significant role in determining the shedding of leaves in forests.

2. Latitudinal Variation:
Latitudinal variation also influences the shedding of leaves in forests. As one moves closer to the poles from the equator, the climatic conditions change significantly. The duration and intensity of sunlight vary with latitude, affecting the growth and development of plants. In tropical regions near the equator, where there is a relatively consistent amount of sunlight throughout the year, trees tend to retain their leaves. This is because the trees can perform photosynthesis continuously, utilizing the available sunlight and producing energy. In contrast, as one moves towards higher latitudes, such as temperate or boreal regions, the duration of sunlight decreases, especially during winter. To conserve energy and survive the harsh conditions, trees in these regions shed their leaves during autumn. By shedding their leaves, trees reduce their energy expenditure and prepare for the dormant period of winter. Therefore, latitudinal variation also plays a significant role in determining the shedding of leaves in forests.

Conclusion:
Both the availability of moisture and latitudinal variation are important factors that influence the shedding of leaves in forests. The availability of moisture determines the water and nutrient supply for trees, while latitudinal variation affects the duration and intensity of sunlight. By shedding their leaves, trees adapt to their respective environmental conditions and ensure their survival. Therefore, the correct answer is option 'C' - Both 1 and 2.

Steppe climate will have lower and irregular rainfall. North-eastern India receives either abundant rainfall or gets too cold for being called a steppe climate.

Introduction:
Coastal places like Kolkata and Mumbai experience humid and moderate weather due to the flowing of sea and land breezes. This phenomenon is influenced by various factors such as proximity to the coast, sea surface temperatures, and prevailing wind patterns.

Sea and Land Breezes:
Sea and land breezes are the primary factors responsible for the humid and moderate weather in coastal places like Kolkata and Mumbai. These breezes occur due to the differential heating and cooling of land and water surfaces.

- Sea Breeze: During the day, the land heats up faster than the sea, causing the air above the land to rise. This creates a low-pressure zone over land. Simultaneously, the sea remains relatively cooler, leading to the formation of a high-pressure zone. As a result, cooler air from the sea moves towards the land, creating a sea breeze. This sea breeze brings moisture from the sea, leading to humid conditions.

- Land Breeze: At night, the situation reverses. The land cools down faster than the sea, causing the air above the sea to rise. This creates a low-pressure zone over the sea and a high-pressure zone over land. Consequently, cooler air from the land moves towards the sea, forming a land breeze. This land breeze carries the moisture from the land, resulting in moderate weather conditions.

Other Factors:
While sea and land breezes play a crucial role in shaping the weather patterns of coastal places like Kolkata and Mumbai, other factors also contribute to their humid and moderate weather.

- Proximity to the Coast: Being located near the coast, Kolkata and Mumbai are influenced by the maritime climate. The presence of large water bodies helps in maintaining moderate temperatures and moisture content in the atmosphere.

- Sea Surface Temperatures: The temperature of the sea surface affects the air temperature and moisture content in coastal areas. Higher sea surface temperatures contribute to the evaporation of water, leading to increased humidity.

- Prevailing Wind Patterns: The direction and strength of the prevailing winds also influence the weather conditions in coastal areas. The interaction between the sea and land breezes and the prevailing winds further enhances the humid and moderate weather experienced in places like Kolkata and Mumbai.

Conclusion:
In conclusion, the flowing of sea and land breezes is the primary reason why coastal places like Kolkata and Mumbai experience humid and moderate weather. The differential heating and cooling of land and water surfaces, along with other factors like proximity to the coast, sea surface temperatures, and prevailing wind patterns, contribute to the overall weather patterns observed in these regions.

Dew point, the temperature at which the atmosphere is saturated with water vapour when it is cooled without changing its pressure or vapour content. A given volume of air containing much water vapour has a higher dew point than the same volume of drier air; thus, the dew point indicates the humidity. In meteorology, the dew point is applied, for example, in predicting the height of the base of certain types of clouds. A higher dew point means there will be more moisture in the air.

Explanation:

Absolute Humidity:
Absolute humidity refers to the actual amount of moisture present in the air, regardless of temperature. It is a measure of the total water vapor content in a given volume of air and is usually expressed in grams per cubic meter (g/m3) or grams per kilogram (g/kg).

Relative Humidity:
Relative humidity is the ratio of the actual amount of moisture present in the air to the maximum amount of moisture the air can hold at a particular temperature. It is expressed as a percentage and provides a measure of how close the air is to saturation. Relative humidity is dependent on both the temperature and the absolute humidity.

Specific Humidity:
Specific humidity is a measure of the actual amount of moisture present in the air on a mass basis. It is the ratio of the mass of water vapor to the total mass of the air parcel. Specific humidity is expressed in grams per kilogram (g/kg) and is not dependent on temperature.

Analysis of the Statements:
1. Absolute humidity is the water content of the air.
This statement is correct. Absolute humidity refers to the actual amount of moisture present in the air.

2. Relative humidity, expressed as a per cent, measures the current absolute humidity relative to the maximum for that temperature.
This statement is correct. Relative humidity is a measure of the current absolute humidity relative to the maximum amount of moisture the air can hold at a particular temperature.

3. Specific humidity is a ratio of the water vapor content of the mixture to the total air content on a mass basis.
This statement is incorrect. Specific humidity is a ratio of the water vapor content of the mixture to the total mass of the air parcel, not the total air content. It is not dependent on temperature.

Conclusion:
Based on the analysis, statement 3 is incorrect, while statements 1 and 2 are correct. Therefore, the correct answer is option 'D' - None of the above.

Explanation:
Cirrus clouds are formed at high altitudes, typically between 8,000 and 12,000 meters. They are thin and detached clouds that have a feathery appearance. These clouds are always white in color.

Characteristics of Cirrus clouds:
- High altitude: Cirrus clouds form at high altitudes in the troposphere, which is the lowest layer of the Earth's atmosphere.
- Thin and detached: Cirrus clouds are thin and wispy in appearance. They are often seen as individual strands or patches rather than a continuous layer.
- Feathery appearance: Cirrus clouds have a characteristic feathery or fibrous appearance. They have a delicate and ethereal quality, resembling the tail of a horse or a mare's tail.
- White color: Cirrus clouds are always white in color. This is because they are composed of ice crystals, which scatter and reflect sunlight, giving them a bright and white appearance.

Other types of clouds:
a) Cumulus clouds: Cumulus clouds are large, puffy clouds that have a flat base and a rounded top. They are often associated with fair weather, but can also develop into cumulonimbus clouds, which are associated with thunderstorms.
c) Cumulonimbus clouds: Cumulonimbus clouds are large and vertically developed clouds that can reach high altitudes. They are associated with thunderstorms, heavy rain, lightning, and sometimes hail.
d) Stratus clouds: Stratus clouds are low-lying clouds that form in a uniform layer. They often cover the entire sky and can be gray or white in color. Stratus clouds are typically associated with overcast weather and light precipitation.

In conclusion, the description provided in the question matches the characteristics of Cirrus clouds, which are thin, detached, feathery clouds that form at high altitudes and are always white in color. Hence, the correct answer is option 'B' - Cirrus.

Tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating storm system characterised by a low-pressure centre. On Earth, the pressures recorded at the centres of tropical cyclones are among the lowest ever observed at sea level. At the centre of a mature tropical cyclone, air sinks rather than rises. For a sufficiently strong storm, air may sink over a layer deep enough to suppress cloud formation, thereby creating a clear 'eye'. If the air pressure is high at the centre and low at the edges, an anticyclone is formed.

Extratropical Cyclones:
Extratropical cyclones, also known as mid-latitude or frontal cyclones, are large-scale low-pressure systems that occur in the middle and high latitudes outside the tropics. These cyclones are responsible for most of the weather patterns experienced in the middle latitudes, including strong winds, rain, and snow.

Important Features of Extratropical Cyclones:
1. They originate only over the seas or oceans: This statement is incorrect. While many extratropical cyclones do form over the seas or oceans, they can also form over land. Cyclones that form over land are known as continental cyclones. Therefore, this statement is not an important feature of extratropical cyclones.

2. They require a frontal system to get activated: This statement is correct. Extratropical cyclones are typically associated with the interaction of warm and cold air masses, resulting in the formation of a frontal system. The presence of a frontal system is necessary for the development and intensification of extratropical cyclones. Fronts are boundaries between air masses with different temperatures and densities, and the interaction between these air masses leads to the formation of the cyclone.

3. Since they can move only vertically above, they must be carried laterally by jet streams to be effective: This statement is incorrect. Extratropical cyclones are not limited to moving only vertically above. They are characterized by their cyclonic circulation, which involves both vertical and horizontal movement of air. While jet streams can influence the movement and intensity of extratropical cyclones, they are not required for their effectiveness.

Conclusion:
Out of the given statements, only statement 2 is an important feature of extratropical cyclones. These cyclones require a frontal system to get activated and are associated with the interaction of warm and cold air masses. They can form over both land and seas/oceans, and their movement is not limited to vertical displacement above. Therefore, the correct answer is option 'A' (2 only).

Movement of Inter-tropical convergence zone:
The movement of the Inter-tropical convergence zone (ITCZ) is one of the factors that affect the generation and flow of Equatorial Westerlies.

The ITCZ is a low-pressure belt that encircles the Earth near the equator. It is characterized by the convergence of trade winds from the Northern Hemisphere and Southern Hemisphere. The zone moves northward during summer in the Northern Hemisphere and southward during summer in the Southern Hemisphere.

1. During the summer in the Northern Hemisphere, the ITCZ moves northward, resulting in the convergence of trade winds from the Northern Hemisphere and the Equatorial Westerlies. This convergence leads to the generation of Equatorial Westerlies.

2. Similarly, during the summer in the Southern Hemisphere, the ITCZ moves southward, resulting in the convergence of trade winds from the Southern Hemisphere and the Equatorial Westerlies. This convergence also leads to the generation of Equatorial Westerlies.

Coriolis force caused due to the rotation of Earth:
The Coriolis force, which is caused due to the rotation of the Earth, is another factor that affects the generation and flow of Equatorial Westerlies.

The Coriolis force is an apparent force that deflects the motion of objects, including air masses, on the rotating Earth. In the Northern Hemisphere, the deflection is to the right, while in the Southern Hemisphere, it is to the left.

1. The Coriolis force deflects the trade winds from the Northern Hemisphere towards the right, resulting in the formation of Equatorial Westerlies.

2. In the Southern Hemisphere, the Coriolis force deflects the trade winds towards the left, also resulting in the formation of Equatorial Westerlies.

Both 1 and 2:
Therefore, both the movement of the Inter-tropical convergence zone and the Coriolis force caused due to the rotation of the Earth play a role in the generation and flow of Equatorial Westerlies. The movement of the ITCZ leads to the convergence of trade winds, while the Coriolis force deflects these winds to form the Equatorial Westerlies. Hence, option C, "Both 1 and 2," is the correct answer.

The troposphere is thicker at the equator than at the poles because the equator is warmer. The convection currents of air expand the thickness of the troposphere (atmosphere) at poles. Thus, the simple reason is thermal expansion of the atmosphere at the equator and thermal contraction near the poles.

More than 200cm per annum

Answer:

Extratropical storms and tropical cyclones are two different types of weather systems that occur in different regions and have distinct characteristics. Let's analyze each statement individually:

Statement 1: Tropical storms bring rain, while extratropical storms do not.

This statement is incorrect. Both tropical storms and extratropical storms can bring rain. However, the amount and intensity of the rainfall may vary depending on various factors such as the size, strength, and location of the storm.

- Tropical storms, also known as tropical cyclones or hurricanes, are intense low-pressure systems that form over warm ocean waters near the equator. These storms are characterized by strong winds, heavy rainfall, and thunderstorms. The warm, moist air fuels the storm's energy, resulting in heavy precipitation.

- Extratropical storms, on the other hand, are low-pressure systems that develop outside the tropics, typically in the mid-latitudes. These storms often form along weather fronts and are associated with changes in temperature and air masses. While extratropical storms may not always bring as much rainfall as tropical storms, they can still produce significant precipitation, especially in regions where warm and cold air masses collide.

Statement 2: Extratropical storms are caused due to jet streams, whereas tropical cyclones are caused due to lower atmospheric circulations.

This statement is correct. The formation and development of extratropical storms and tropical cyclones are influenced by different atmospheric circulations.

- Extratropical storms are primarily driven by the jet stream, a high-speed, meandering current of air in the upper atmosphere. The jet stream acts as a boundary between cold polar air and warm tropical air, creating a favorable environment for the formation of extratropical storms. The temperature and moisture gradients associated with the jet stream contribute to the development and intensification of these storms.

- Tropical cyclones, on the other hand, are fueled by lower atmospheric circulations and the release of latent heat from warm ocean waters. These storms typically form in regions of the tropics where sea surface temperatures are above 26.5°C (80°F). As the warm, moist air rises, it creates a low-pressure system that draws in more air and moisture, leading to the formation of a tropical cyclone.

In conclusion, both statements are not correct. Tropical storms and extratropical storms can bring rain, and their formation is influenced by different atmospheric circulations. Therefore, the correct answer is option 'D' - None of the above.

Explanation:

Low-pressure systems are usually characterized by unsettled and wet weather, while high-pressure systems are associated with stable and dry weather conditions. Therefore, neither statement 1 nor statement 2 is correct.

Low-pressure systems are characterized by the following weather conditions:

1. Clouds and precipitation: Low-pressure systems are typically associated with cloudy skies and precipitation. The lower atmospheric pressure allows air to rise, cool, and condense, forming clouds and eventually leading to rain or other forms of precipitation.

2. Unsettled weather: Low-pressure systems often bring dynamic and changing weather conditions. Due to the upward motion of air, low-pressure systems can generate strong winds, thunderstorms, and even severe weather events like hurricanes and tornadoes.

3. Cyclonic circulation: In the Northern Hemisphere, low-pressure systems exhibit counterclockwise (cyclonic) circulation. The converging winds near the surface flow inward, while the rising air in the center of the low moves upward and diverges aloft. This circulation pattern is responsible for the unsettled weather associated with low-pressure systems.

High-pressure systems, on the other hand, are characterized by the following weather conditions:

1. Clear skies: High-pressure systems are generally associated with clear skies and sunny weather. The sinking air within the high-pressure system inhibits the formation of clouds and promotes dry conditions.

2. Stable weather: High-pressure systems tend to create stable weather conditions. The sinking air within the high-pressure system suppresses vertical motion, which limits cloud formation and precipitation. As a result, high-pressure systems often bring calm and settled weather patterns.

3. Anticyclonic circulation: In the Northern Hemisphere, high-pressure systems exhibit clockwise (anticyclonic) circulation. The air near the surface diverges outward, while the sinking air in the center of the high moves downward and converges aloft. This circulation pattern contributes to the stable weather associated with high-pressure systems.

In conclusion, both statement 1 and statement 2 are incorrect. Low-pressure systems are characterized by unsettled and wet weather, while high-pressure systems are associated with stable and dry weather conditions.

In January, Earth is closer to Sun (perihelion) while in July, it experiences aphelion. But due to uneven distribution of land and sea in both hemispheres and air circulation, differences are evened out.

Explanation:

1. These are low-pressure regions:
Anticyclones are actually high-pressure systems, not low-pressure systems. In an anticyclone, the air is sinking and spreading outwards from a central region, creating higher pressure at the surface. This high-pressure system is characterized by clear skies, light winds, and dry weather conditions. So, statement 1 is incorrect.

2. Their extent is always small:
Anticyclones are typically smaller in size compared to other weather systems such as cyclones. They usually span a few hundred kilometers in diameter. Due to their smaller size, they have a more localized impact on weather patterns. So, statement 2 is correct.

3. Cloudy and precipitation conditions exist along with the cyclone:
This statement is incorrect. Anticyclones are associated with clear skies and dry weather conditions. The sinking air in an anticyclone inhibits the formation of clouds and precipitation. Instead, they are characterized by stable atmospheric conditions, which result in fair weather with minimal cloud cover and low chances of rainfall.

Conclusion:
Based on the explanations above, statement 1 is incorrect, statement 2 is correct, and statement 3 is incorrect. Therefore, the correct answer is option 'C' - only statement 2 is true.

Zero Coriolis force at the equator:
- The Coriolis force is responsible for the deflection of winds in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
- At the equator, the Coriolis force is nearly zero due to the minimal effect of the Earth's rotation on the winds.

Presence of roaring forties:
- The roaring forties are strong westerly winds found in the Southern Hemisphere, generally between 40 and 50 degrees latitude.
- These winds are located much farther from the equator and do not directly impact the deflection of winds at the equator.

A large number of land breaks and bays:
- Landmasses and bodies of water, such as bays, can influence the direction and speed of winds.
- At the equator, there are a large number of land breaks and bays that can disrupt the flow of winds, leading to less deflection.

In conclusion, the winds are not deflected with great force at the equator primarily due to the zero Coriolis force at the equator. The presence of the roaring forties and a large number of land breaks and bays also play a role, but they are not as significant as the absence of the Coriolis force at the equator.

One of the factors that is not connected with the planetary wind system is the migration of the pressure belts due to the apparent path of the Sun. Let's understand why this is the correct answer.

Explanation:
The planetary wind system is a global pattern of winds that circulate around the Earth. It is primarily driven by two main factors: the latitudinal variation of solar insolation and heating, and the Earth's rotation on its axis.

1. Latitudinal variation of solar insolation and heating:
Solar insolation refers to the amount of solar radiation received by the Earth's surface. It varies with latitude due to the curvature of the Earth and the tilt of its axis. The equatorial regions receive more direct sunlight and are therefore heated more, while the polar regions receive less direct sunlight and are colder.

This variation in heating creates temperature and pressure gradients, which in turn drive the movement of air masses. Warm air rises at the equator, creating a low-pressure zone, while cold air sinks at the poles, creating a high-pressure zone. The movement of air from high-pressure to low-pressure areas creates winds.

2. Earth's rotation on its axis:
The Earth's rotation on its axis causes a phenomenon known as the Coriolis effect. This effect deflects the path of moving objects, including air masses, to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.

The Coriolis effect influences the direction of winds in the planetary wind system. In the Northern Hemisphere, winds are deflected to the right, resulting in the northeast trade winds near the equator and the prevailing westerlies in the mid-latitudes. In the Southern Hemisphere, winds are deflected to the left, leading to the southeast trade winds near the equator and the prevailing easterlies in the mid-latitudes.

3. Migration of the pressure belts due to the apparent path of the Sun:
The migration of the pressure belts is not directly connected with the planetary wind system. The pressure belts, such as the equatorial low-pressure belt (Intertropical Convergence Zone) and the subtropical high-pressure belts, do shift with the apparent path of the Sun throughout the year. This movement is responsible for the seasonal changes in weather patterns, such as the monsoon winds.

However, the migration of the pressure belts does not affect the overall global pattern of winds in the planetary wind system. The latitudinal variation of solar insolation and heating, as well as the Earth's rotation, are the primary drivers of the planetary wind system.

In conclusion, the migration of the pressure belts due to the apparent path of the Sun is not directly connected with the planetary wind system. The main factors that determine the global pattern of winds are the latitudinal variation of solar insolation and heating, as well as the Earth's rotation on its axis.

Tyndall effect can be observed when sunlight passes through the canopy of a dense forest. In the forest, mist contains tiny droplets of water, which act as particles of colloid dispersed in the air.

Insolation over continents and oceans at the same latitude

Insolation refers to the amount of solar radiation that reaches a specific area. It plays a significant role in determining the climate and weather patterns of a region. In this context, we are comparing the insolation over continents and oceans at the same latitude.

1. Oceans are cloudier:
- Oceans have a higher potential to be cloudier compared to continents. This is because water bodies have higher evaporation rates, leading to increased moisture content in the atmosphere.
- The presence of clouds can significantly affect the amount of solar radiation reaching the surface. Clouds can reflect or absorb solar radiation, reducing the amount that reaches the surface.
- Therefore, due to the higher likelihood of cloud cover over oceans, the insolation is generally lower compared to continents at the same latitude.

2. Continents have varied relief:
- Continents are characterized by varied relief features such as mountains, plateaus, and plains. These relief features can influence the distribution of solar radiation.
- Mountains, for example, can intercept the path of incoming solar radiation, causing shadows and reducing the amount of insolation reaching the surface. This phenomenon is known as the orographic effect.
- In contrast, plains and low-lying areas tend to receive more direct solar radiation as there are no significant barriers to block or divert the incoming solar radiation.
- Therefore, the varied relief of continents can lead to differences in the distribution of insolation at the same latitude compared to oceans.

Conclusion:
Based on the above discussion, it can be concluded that both statements are correct:
a) Oceans are cloudier.
b) Continents have varied relief.
Therefore, the correct answer is option 'A' - both 1 and 2.

• Water vapour is a very effective absorber of heat energy in the air, but it does not accumulate in the atmosphere in the same way as the other greenhouse gases. This is down to it having a very short atmospheric lifetime, of the order of hours to days because it is rapidly removed as rain and snow.
• Nitrous oxide is destroyed in the stratosphere and removed from the atmosphere more slowly than methane, persisting for around 114 years.
• Methane is mostly removed from the atmosphere by chemical reaction, persisting for about 12 years. Thus, although methane is a potent greenhouse gas, its effect is relatively short-lived.
• SF6 is included in the Kyoto Protocol because, molecule-for-molecule, it is a powerful greenhouse gas with a long (>1000 years) lifetime in the atmosphere. The signatory nations are thus committed to controlling the rate of its production.

Effects of Temperature Inversion:
Temperature inversion is a weather phenomenon where the normal atmospheric temperature profile is inverted, with a layer of warmer air above cooler air. This can have several significant effects on the environment.

Trapping of Smog:
- One of the major effects of temperature inversion is the trapping of pollutants, such as smog, close to the ground.
- This can lead to poor air quality and health issues for people living in the affected areas.

Cloud Formations:
- Temperature inversion can also lead to the formation of clouds, as the warm air above cools and condenses into water droplets.
- This can result in fog or low-lying clouds that can reduce visibility and affect transportation.

Thunderstorm Prevention:
- Temperature inversion can inhibit the vertical movement of air, which is necessary for the formation of thunderstorms.
- Thunderstorms are less likely to occur in areas experiencing temperature inversion.
Therefore, the correct effects of temperature inversion are cloud formations, thunderstorm prevention, and trapping of smog. Good air quality is not typically associated with temperature inversion as it often leads to poor air quality due to the trapping of pollutants.

Continentality:
- The concept of continentality refers to the effect of a landmass on the climate of a region.
- In the Northern Hemisphere, there is a higher proportion of landmass compared to the Southern Hemisphere.
- Landmasses heat up and cool down faster than water bodies. As a result, continental locations tend to have more extreme temperature variations.
- Therefore, the Northern Hemisphere experiences more continental climates, leading to hotter summers and colder winters at the same latitude compared to the Southern Hemisphere.

Photoperiodism:
- Photoperiodism refers to the response of organisms to the length of day or night.
- In the Northern Hemisphere, the summer solstice occurs around June 21st, leading to longer days and shorter nights.
- This results in more solar radiation and heat during the summer months in the Northern Hemisphere, making it warmer.
- In contrast, the Southern Hemisphere experiences the winter solstice around December 21st, leading to shorter days and less solar radiation during the summer months.
- Therefore, the milder and more moderate climate in the Southern Hemisphere for the same latitude can be partially attributed to photoperiodism.

Conclusion:
- Both continentality and photoperiodism play a role in explaining why the Southern Hemisphere generally experiences milder and more moderate climates compared to the Northern Hemisphere at the same latitude.
- Understanding these factors helps in comprehending the variations in climate patterns between the two hemispheres.

As the evaporation is high and moisture content is lesser in the subtropical and temperate areas compared to equatorial and polar regions, winds are dry; and dust particles are more. Where the moisture is high they fall back to the ground.

The Coriolis force is a phenomenon that affects the motion of objects in a rotating frame of reference, such as the Earth. It is caused by the rotation of the Earth and the inertia of moving objects. The Coriolis force plays a role in several natural phenomena, including the formation of meanders, the direction of trade winds, and the direction of jet streams.

1. Formation of Meanders:
Meanders are bends or curves in a river or stream. The Coriolis force plays a role in their formation by causing water to flow in a curved path. As water flows downstream, the Coriolis force deflects the moving water to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. This deflection causes the water to spiral and form meanders.

2. Direction of Trade Winds:
Trade winds are prevailing winds that blow from east to west in the tropics. The Coriolis force influences the direction of trade winds by deflecting them to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. This deflection is caused by the rotation of the Earth and the inertia of the moving air. The Coriolis force helps to create the distinct east-to-west flow of trade winds.

3. Directing Jet Streams:
Jet streams are high-altitude, narrow bands of strong winds that flow from west to east. The Coriolis force plays a significant role in directing jet streams. As the Earth rotates, the Coriolis force causes the air in the jet streams to deflect to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. This deflection helps to shape the path and direction of the jet streams.

4. Impact Crater:
The Coriolis force does not directly impact the formation of impact craters. Impact craters are created when a meteor or asteroid collides with the Earth's surface. The force of the impact causes a large explosion and ejects material from the impact site. While the Coriolis force does not play a role in the formation of impact craters, it can affect the movement of ejected material after the impact, as it follows curved paths due to the rotation of the Earth.

In conclusion, the Coriolis force plays a role in the formation of meanders, the direction of trade winds, and the direction of jet streams. Therefore, the correct answer is option C (1, 2, and 3 only).

Explanation:

Capacity of air to hold moisture is measured in terms of relative humidity. Relative humidity is the percentage of moisture present in the air compared to the maximum amount of moisture that the air can hold at a particular temperature. The higher the temperature, the more moisture air can hold.

Hot subtropical deserts have high capacity of air to hold moisture because of the following reasons:

1. High temperatures: Subtropical deserts are characterized by hot and dry climate. The temperature in these regions can reach up to 50°C during the day and drop to near freezing at night. The high temperature increases the capacity of air to hold moisture.

2. Low humidity: Subtropical deserts have low humidity because of the scarcity of water. The dry air has more capacity to hold moisture.

3. High pressure: High pressure systems dominate in subtropical deserts. High pressure causes the air to sink and warm, increasing the capacity of air to hold moisture.

Coastal regions and tropical rainforests have high humidity, which means that the air is already saturated with moisture. Therefore, the capacity of air to hold moisture is lower in these regions. Cold Tundra regions have low temperatures, which means that the capacity of air to hold moisture is also low.

In conclusion, hot subtropical deserts have the highest capacity of air to hold moisture because of the high temperatures, low humidity, and high pressure systems.

Coriolis force is absent at the equator. Due to this, winds blowing from high-pressure sub-tropics to low-pressure tropics do not form a circulatory pattern around a low-pressure zone.

Explanation:
The thermal equator is an imaginary circle around the Earth that connects the points where the highest mean annual temperature is recorded at each longitude. The following points explain why the thermal equator is slightly north of the geographical equator:

- Solar insolation is comparatively much higher in the Northern Hemisphere than in the Southern Hemisphere. This is due to the fact that the Earth's orbit is not circular but slightly elliptical. As a result, the Earth is closer to the Sun during the Northern Hemisphere summer than during the Southern Hemisphere summer. This means that there is more solar radiation falling on the Northern Hemisphere, leading to higher temperatures.

- The Northern Hemisphere is dominated by land, which heats up faster than water. Land has a lower heat capacity than water, which means that it takes less energy to raise its temperature. This is why temperatures in the interior of continents can be much higher than temperatures on the coasts. In contrast, the Southern Hemisphere is dominated by ocean waters, which have a higher heat capacity and take longer to warm up. This leads to lower temperatures in the Southern Hemisphere.

Therefore, both factors contribute to the fact that the thermal equator is slightly north of the geographical equator. Option B is the correct answer.

Temperature inversion is most common in Mountain valleys.

Explanation:

Temperature inversion refers to a reversal of the normal atmospheric temperature gradient, where the temperature increases with altitude. In other words, instead of the temperature decreasing as we go higher in the atmosphere, it actually increases. This phenomenon is caused by the trapping of cool air near the surface of the Earth by a layer of warm air above it.

Inversions can occur in various locations, but they are most common in mountain valleys. Here's why:

1. Geographic Features:
- Mountain valleys are characterized by their topography, with high mountains surrounding a narrow valley floor.
- This topography plays a crucial role in the formation of temperature inversions.
- During the day, the sun heats up the valley floor, causing the air near the surface to warm and rise.
- However, at night, the valley floor cools rapidly due to radiative cooling, causing the air near the surface to become colder than the air above it.

2. Cold Air Drainage:
- In mountain valleys, cold air tends to drain down the slopes and accumulate in the valley bottom.
- This cold air becomes trapped beneath a layer of warmer air, leading to the formation of a temperature inversion.
- The surrounding mountains act as barriers, preventing the cold air from mixing with the warmer air above.

3. Stable Atmospheric Conditions:
- Temperature inversions are more likely to occur when the atmosphere is stable.
- In stable atmospheric conditions, there is little vertical mixing of air masses, allowing the inversion layer to persist.
- Mountain valleys often experience stable atmospheric conditions, especially during calm and clear nights when radiative cooling is most effective.

4. Local Climate:
- Mountain valleys tend to have specific climatic conditions that favor the formation of temperature inversions.
- The cool air trapped in the valley can lead to the accumulation of pollutants, such as smoke or fog, which further enhance the inversion layer.
- This can result in poor air quality and reduced visibility in these areas.

In conclusion, temperature inversions are most common in mountain valleys due to the geographic features, cold air drainage, stable atmospheric conditions, and local climate characteristics associated with these regions.

Atmospheric pressure is caused by the weight of the atmosphere pushing down on itself and the surface below it. Atmospheric pressure decreases with height above the surface of a planet because there is the less total mass in the atmosphere above a reference point as the height of the reference point increases. This is explained by the heaviness of air closer to the Earth. Air is heaviest at sea level because the air molecules are pressed together due to gravity.