All questions of The Vijayanagar Empire and Bahamani Kingdom for UPSC CSE Exam

Vijayanagara ruler defeated by Firuz Bahmani

Deva Raya-I was the ruler of Vijayanagara who was decisively defeated by Firuz Bahmani.

Background

In the 14th century, the Bahmani Sultanate was emerged in the Deccan region of India. The Vijayanagara Empire, which was established in the 14th century, was a powerful Hindu kingdom in South India. The Bahmani Sultanate and the Vijayanagara Empire were constantly at war with each other for territorial expansion.

War between Vijayanagara and Bahmani Sultanate

In 1406, Firuz Bahmani, the ruler of the Bahmani Sultanate, invaded Vijayanagara. Deva Raya-I, the ruler of Vijayanagara, led his army to fight against the Bahmani Sultanate. However, the Vijayanagara army was decisively defeated by Firuz Bahmani.

Consequences of the war

As a result of the war, Deva Raya-I was forced to pay a huge war indemnity to Firuz Bahmani. He also had to offer his daughter in marriage to Firuz Bahmani as a sign of surrender. This marriage alliance between the two kingdoms was meant to establish peace and stability in the Deccan region.

Conclusion

The defeat of Deva Raya-I by Firuz Bahmani was a significant event in the history of the Deccan region. It marked the beginning of a new phase of political and cultural interaction between the Vijayanagara Empire and the Bahmani Sultanate. Despite the defeat, the Vijayanagara Empire continued to thrive and expand under the leadership of its subsequent rulers.

The correct answer is option C, Tenali Ramakrishna. Tenali Ramakrishna, also known as Tenali Rama, was a poet who adorned the court of Krishnadeva Raya, the ruler of the Vijayanagara Empire in southern India.

1. Historical Context:
During the reign of Krishnadeva Raya, the Vijayanagara Empire was at its peak, and the court was known for its patronage of literature, arts, and culture. Many poets, scholars, and artists were invited to the court to showcase their talents.

2. Tenali Ramakrishna:
Tenali Ramakrishna was one of the most prominent poets who graced the court of Krishnadeva Raya. He was born in Tenali, Andhra Pradesh, and was known for his wit, humor, and intelligence.

3. Wit and Humor:
Tenali Ramakrishna was renowned for his ability to entertain and amuse with his witty and humorous stories. He had a unique talent for creating clever wordplay, puns, and humorous anecdotes that delighted both the king and the courtiers.

4. Folklore and Legends:
Many legends and folktales have been associated with Tenali Ramakrishna's wit and humor. These stories often depict his encounters with the king, where he would outwit those who tried to challenge him or prove their intelligence. His quick thinking and clever responses made him a favorite among the courtiers and the king himself.

5. Legacy and Popularity:
Tenali Ramakrishna's wit and humor have made him a legendary figure in southern India. His stories and anecdotes are still widely popular and have been passed down through generations. He is known as a symbol of intelligence, wit, and wit.

In conclusion, Tenali Ramakrishna is known all over southern India for his wit and humor. His presence at the court of Krishnadeva Raya brought entertainment and laughter to the royal court, making him a beloved figure in the region's folklore and literature.

Only single ruler hi best tha krishna dev raya kyuki astdiggaj kavi the iske darbar me same chandragupt 2 and akbar me bhi the
he is educated person

Harihara II was primarily responsible for extending the Vijayanagar empire over the whole southern India.

Heading: Background Information
The Vijayanagar Empire was established in 1336 AD by two brothers Harihara I and Bukka Raya. The empire was founded in the Deccan Plateau region of South India. Initially, the empire was small and consisted of only a few regions. However, over time, the empire expanded and became one of the most powerful empires in South India.

Heading: Harihara II's Reign
Harihara II was the third ruler of the Vijayanagar Empire. He came to power in 1377 AD after the death of his father Bukka Raya. He ruled for 31 years and during his reign, he extended the empire's territory significantly.

Heading: Conquest of Warangal
One of Harihara II's most significant achievements was the conquest of the Kakatiya dynasty's capital, Warangal. In 1378 AD, Harihara II led his army against the Kakatiya dynasty, which was a powerful kingdom in South India. After a long and bloody war, Harihara II's army emerged victorious, and he captured Warangal. This conquest gave the Vijayanagar Empire access to the rich resources of the Telugu region.

Heading: Conquest of Madurai
Another significant conquest during Harihara II's reign was the capture of Madurai. Madurai was a powerful city located in the Tamil region of South India. Harihara II's army captured the city in 1379 AD, and this conquest gave the Vijayanagar Empire control over the entire Tamil region.

Heading: Consolidation of Empire
After the conquest of Warangal and Madurai, Harihara II focused on consolidating the empire's territory. He built several forts and established garrisons in strategic locations to defend the empire's borders. He also established a strong administrative system to govern the newly acquired territories.

Heading: Conclusion
In conclusion, Harihara II was primarily responsible for extending the Vijayanagar empire over the whole southern India. His conquests of Warangal and Madurai significantly expanded the empire's territory and consolidated its power in the region.

Bitragunta Grant
The Bitragunta Grant is the inscription that gives us the genealogy of the five Sangama brothers. Here is the detailed explanation:

Introduction
The Sangama brothers were a prominent dynasty that ruled over the Vijayanagara Empire in South India. The Bitragunta Grant, also known as the Bitragunta Copper Plate, is an important historical document that provides insights into the genealogy of these brothers.

Key Information
- The Bitragunta Grant is an inscription found in the village of Bitragunta in Andhra Pradesh, India.
- It is written in the Telugu language and dates back to the 14th century.
- The inscription is engraved on a copper plate and contains valuable information about the lineage and titles of the Sangama brothers.

Genealogy of the Sangama Brothers
The Bitragunta Grant provides the genealogy of the five Sangama brothers, who were the founders of the Sangama dynasty. According to the inscription:

- Harihara I: He was the first ruler of the Sangama dynasty and the eldest of the five brothers. He is mentioned as the son of Sangama, hence the dynasty's name. Harihara I ruled from 1336 to 1356.

- Bukka I: He was the second ruler and the younger brother of Harihara I. Bukka I succeeded his brother and ruled from 1356 to 1377.

- Kumara Kampana: He was the third brother and played an important role in expanding the Vijayanagara Empire. He was appointed as a governor of various territories and was known for his military prowess.

- Marappa: He was the fourth brother and served as a commander in the Vijayanagara Empire.

- Muddapa: He was the youngest of the five brothers and also held a prominent position in the Vijayanagara Empire.

Significance
The Bitragunta Grant is significant for understanding the history and genealogy of the Sangama brothers. It sheds light on their lineage, titles, and their contributions to the Vijayanagara Empire. This inscription helps historians and researchers piece together the history of the Sangama dynasty and their impact on South India.

Correct answer is b.

Answer is e here

Several malpractices were existed : The society of Vijayanagara had many malpractices. The animals were sacrificed to please gods and goddesses. The practice of sati was very popular in the society. Even the Telugu women were buried alive after the deaths of their husbands. Besides there was an evil of prostitution. Deva Raya II had twelve thousand queens. He had married three thousand queens on the condition that they would perform sati after his death.

The first Vijayanagar ruler to wrest the important port of Goa from the Bahmanis was Harihara-II.

Explanation:
- Harihara-II was the son of Bukka-II and the grandson of Bukka-I, who was the co-founder of the Vijayanagara Empire along with his brother Harihara-I.
- Harihara-II ruled from 1377 to 1404 CE and was known for his military conquests and expansion of the empire.
- Goa was an important port city on the west coast of India, and it was under the control of the Bahmani Sultanate, which was a rival kingdom to the Vijayanagara Empire.
- Harihara-II launched a military campaign to capture Goa, and he succeeded in doing so in 1380 CE.
- The capture of Goa was a significant achievement for the Vijayanagara Empire, as it gave them control over an important trade route and access to the Arabian Sea.
- Harihara-II continued to expand the empire by conquering other territories, and his reign was marked by stability and prosperity.

In conclusion, Harihara-II was the first Vijayanagar ruler to capture Goa from the Bahmanis, and this event played a significant role in the expansion and success of the Vijayanagara Empire.

Understanding the Quote
The statement "A crowned king should always rule with an eye towards dharma" emphasizes the responsibility of a monarch to govern ethically and justly. This principle is deeply rooted in Indian philosophy, particularly in the context of the rule of law and moral governance.
Krishnadeva Raya's Legacy
- Historical Significance: Krishnadeva Raya was one of the most illustrious rulers of the Vijayanagara Empire, reigning from 1509 to 1529.
- Promotion of Dharma: He is known for his commitment to dharmic principles, which encompass righteousness, justice, and moral order.
- Cultural Patronage: Under his rule, the empire flourished culturally and economically, promoting literature, art, and architecture, all aligned with dharma.
Philosophical Context
- Dharma in Governance: In ancient Indian texts, especially the Manusmriti, dharma is seen as the moral law that governs individual and societal conduct. A king's duty is to uphold this law for the welfare of his subjects.
- Ruler’s Responsibility: A king is not only a sovereign but also a custodian of justice. His authority is legitimized through his adherence to dharma.
Conclusion
In essence, the quote reflects Krishnadeva Raya's philosophy that effective leadership involves a steadfast commitment to ethical governance. His reign serves as a historical example of how rulers can harmonize power with moral responsibility, making option 'C' the correct answer in this context.

Incorrect statement: c) Torture was not the surest method to extract confession of crime.

Explanation:
The Vijayanagar Empire, founded in the 14th century in South India, had a well-developed judicial system that aimed to ensure justice and maintain law and order. However, the statement that torture was not the surest method to extract a confession of crime is incorrect.

1. Overview of the Vijayanagar judicial system:
The Vijayanagar Empire had a systematic and hierarchical judicial system that was headed by the king. The system included various courts and officials responsible for the administration of justice.

2. Dispensation of justice:
a) Rough and ready justice: It is almost certain that a sort of rough and ready justice was dispensed according to the discretion of the authorities. This implies that the judicial officials had the power to make decisions based on their own judgment and understanding of the law.

b) Punishment for crimes: The Vijayanagar judicial system had strict punishments for various crimes. Theft, adultery, and treason were indeed punished with death or mutilation. These severe punishments were meant to deter people from committing such crimes.

c) Use of torture: Contrary to the incorrect statement, torture was used as a method to extract confessions of crimes. Confessions obtained through torture were considered valid evidence in the Vijayanagar judicial system. Torture was used to force the accused to admit their guilt and provide information about the crime.

3. Brahmanas and capital punishment:
d) Brahmanas exemption: The statement that Brahmanas were exempted from capital punishment is correct. Brahmanas, who were considered the highest caste in the Hindu social hierarchy, were given certain privileges and exemptions. Capital punishment was generally not imposed on Brahmanas, except in extreme cases.

In conclusion, the incorrect statement in this question is option c) Torture was not the surest method to extract a confession of crime. The Vijayanagar judicial system did use torture as a method to obtain confessions, and confessions obtained through torture were considered valid evidence.

The king of Vijayanagar at the time of the Battle of Talikota was Sadasiva Raya, although Rama Raya was the de facto ruler during this period.

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Military: The rulers of Vijaynagar had a carefully organised military departments called ‘Kandachara’, under the control of the Dandanayaka or Dannayaka( commander –inchief) who was assisted by a staff of minor officials. The State maintained a large and efficient army, the numerical strength of which was not , however, uniform all through. The regular troops of the king were, in times of need, reinforced by auxiliary forces of the feudatories and nobles. The several component parts of the army were the infantry, recruited from people of different classes and creeds, occasionally even including Muslims; the cavalry, strenghtned by the recruitment of god horses from Ormuz through the Portuguese, owing to a dearth of these animals in the Empire; elephants; camels; and artillery, the use of which by the Hindus as early as A.D. 1308 is proved by the evidence of foreign accounts as well as of inscriptions.

D) He personally looked after the wounded and took personal care of the distinguished fighters amongst the defeated too. This action demonstrates Krishnadeva Raya's qualities of leadership, as it shows that he was concerned for the well-being of his soldiers and was willing to treat even his enemies with kindness and respect. This kind of compassion and concern for the welfare of others is an important quality in a leader, as it helps to earn the loyalty and respect of those being led. Additionally, taking care of the wounded and defeated shows a level of humanity and compassion that is often lacking in military conflicts, and it can help to reduce animosity and foster goodwill between different groups.

-Deva Raya II was an emperor of the Vijayanagara Empire. The greatest of the Sangama dynasty rulers, he was an able administrator, warrior, and scholar. He authored well-known works in the Kannada language and in the Sanskrit language.

Explanation:

Kuttagari is a type of lease system of cultivation that was prevalent in ancient India, particularly in the Deccan plateau region. Under this system, certain lands were leased out to cultivators for a fixed period of time, usually for a period of 5 years. The cultivator had to pay a fixed rent to the landowner, which was usually a percentage of the produce.

Features of Kuttagari:

- Lease system: Kuttagari was a type of lease system of cultivation. Cultivators were given the right to cultivate the land for a fixed period of time, in exchange for paying a fixed rent to the landowner.

- Fixed period of time: The lease period under Kuttagari was usually for a period of 5 years. After the lease period was over, the land would be given to another cultivator.

- Percentage of produce: The rent paid by the cultivator was usually a percentage of the produce. This ensured that the landowner got a share of the profits, while also incentivizing the cultivator to produce more.

- Deccan plateau region: Kuttagari was particularly prevalent in the Deccan plateau region of India, which includes the states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh.

Advantages of Kuttagari:

- Incentivizes cultivation: The lease system of Kuttagari incentivizes cultivators to produce more, as they get to keep the remaining produce after paying the rent.

- Provides land security: Cultivators who have leased land under Kuttagari have a sense of land security, as they know that they have the right to cultivate the land for a fixed period of time.

- Increases agricultural productivity: Kuttagari can increase agricultural productivity, as it encourages cultivators to invest in the land and adopt better farming practices.

Conclusion:

Kuttagari was a lease system of cultivation that was prevalent in ancient India. It incentivized cultivation, provided land security, and increased agricultural productivity. While Kuttagari is no longer prevalent in India, it has left an indelible mark on Indian agriculture and continues to be studied by scholars and researchers.

The incorrect statement on Vijayanagar society is: b) Even Brahmanas ate all kinds of meat.

Explanation:
Vijayanagar society, which was a prominent Hindu kingdom in South India from the 14th to 17th century, had certain cultural and social norms that governed the behavior and practices of its people. While there were restrictions and norms regarding food consumption, the statement that even Brahmanas ate all kinds of meat is incorrect.

1. Dietary Restrictions:
- The Vijayanagar society had a system of food taboos and dietary restrictions that were followed by different social groups.
- The consumption of beef was strictly prohibited for all sections of society, including Brahmanas. Cattle were considered sacred and were primarily used for agricultural purposes, as well as for milk and dairy products.
- The prohibition of beef consumption was in line with the general Hindu religious beliefs prevalent in the region.

2. Meat Consumption:
- While the consumption of beef was prohibited, other forms of meat were not universally prohibited, but there were differences among different social groups.
- Non-Brahmanas, who were considered lower in the social hierarchy, were more likely to consume meat, including chicken, mutton, and fish.
- Brahmanas, on the other hand, generally abstained from consuming meat, adhering to a vegetarian diet.
- This distinction in dietary practices was based on the traditional roles and occupations associated with different social groups.

3. Dispute Resolution:
- Dwelling, or arbitration through negotiation and compromise, was indeed a recognized method of settling disputes in Vijayanagar society.
- Disputes were resolved through the intervention of influential individuals or community leaders who acted as mediators.
- These mediators would listen to the grievances of both parties and facilitate a peaceful resolution through discussions and negotiations.
- This method of dispute resolution helped maintain social harmony and avoid unnecessary conflicts within the society.

In conclusion, the statement that even Brahmanas ate all kinds of meat in Vijayanagar society is incorrect. While non-Brahmanas consumed all kinds of meat, including chicken, mutton, and fish, Brahmanas generally adhered to a vegetarian diet, abstaining from meat consumption.

The Destruction of the City of Vijayanagar

Introduction:
The city of Vijayanagar, located in present-day Karnataka, was one of the most prosperous and culturally rich cities of medieval India. However, it was also the site of a violent and destructive invasion by a confederacy of Muslim armies in 1565. The most vivid account of this event was given by a traveler named Swell.

Swell's Account:
Swell was an Englishman who visited India in the late 16th century and recorded his observations in a book titled "A Chronicle of the English in the East Indies." In it, he provides a detailed and vivid description of the destruction of Vijayanagar.

The Attack:
According to Swell, the Muslim armies entered the city in the early morning hours and began to loot and pillage. The inhabitants of the city were caught off guard and were unable to mount an effective defense. The invaders set fire to the buildings and temples, and the streets were filled with the sound of screams and cries.

The Slaughter:
Swell recounts that the Muslim armies slaughtered thousands of people, including men, women, and children. The streets were said to be ankle-deep in blood, and the stench of death filled the air. The invaders destroyed everything in their path, including the magnificent temples and palaces of the city.

The Aftermath:
By the end of the day, the city of Vijayanagar lay in ruins. The Muslim armies had razed the city to the ground, leaving nothing but a smoldering wasteland. Swell notes that the destruction was so complete that it was impossible to tell where the city had once stood.

Conclusion:
Swell's account of the destruction of Vijayanagar provides a powerful and haunting testimony to the violence and brutality of war. It is a reminder of the importance of preserving our cultural heritage and the devastating consequences of its destruction.

Introduction:
The term Senabova or Sanbhoga was an official designation under the Vijayanagar kingdom. It refers to the village accountant. This role held great importance in the administrative and financial functioning of the kingdom.

Explanation:
The Vijayanagar kingdom was a prosperous and powerful empire in South India during the medieval period. It had a well-organized administrative system with clear hierarchical roles and responsibilities.

Role of Senabova:
The Senabova, also known as Sanbhoga, was responsible for maintaining the accounts of the village. They acted as the village accountant and played a crucial role in the financial management of the kingdom. Some of their key responsibilities included:

1. Collecting Revenue: The Senabova was responsible for collecting various forms of revenue from the village, such as land taxes, irrigation fees, and other levies. They maintained detailed records of the revenue collected from each village.

2. Recording Expenditure: They also maintained records of the kingdom's expenditure, including salaries of officials, military expenses, infrastructure development, and other administrative costs.

3. Land Records: The Senabova maintained land records, including details of land ownership, boundaries, cultivable area, and tax assessments. These records were crucial for effective land administration and revenue collection.

4. Settlement of Disputes: The Senabova played a role in resolving disputes related to land, revenue, and other financial matters within the village. They acted as a mediator and helped in maintaining harmony among the villagers.

5. Reporting to Higher Authorities: The Senabova prepared detailed reports on revenue collection, expenditure, and other financial matters. These reports were submitted to higher authorities, including the king and his council, providing them with crucial information for decision-making.

Conclusion:
The Senabova or Sanbhoga was a significant official designation in the Vijayanagar kingdom. As the village accountant, they played a crucial role in maintaining financial records, collecting revenue, resolving disputes, and providing valuable information to the higher authorities. Their role was essential for the smooth functioning of the administrative and financial systems of the kingdom.

Muhammed Shah III died (aged 29) screaming that Mahmud Gawan was tearing him to pieces.

Explanation:
Mahmud Gawan was a prime minister of the Bahmani Sultanate during the reigns of Muhammad Shah III and his father, Ala-ud-Din Shah II. Gawan was a skilled administrator and played a vital role in the expansion and consolidation of the Bahmani Sultanate. However, his growing influence and power became a threat to the Sultan. In 1481, the Sultan ordered Gawan's execution on false charges of conspiracy and treason.

On the day of his execution, Gawan was dragged through the streets of Bidar, the capital of the Bahmani Sultanate, on a donkey, and then beheaded in front of a large crowd. Muhammad Shah III, who was only 16 years old at that time, was forced to witness the execution of his trusted advisor. It is said that as Gawan's head was raised, he cursed the Sultan and his family.

Soon after the execution, Muhammad Shah III started experiencing strange and terrifying visions. He believed that Mahmud Gawan's spirit was haunting him and tearing him to pieces. He died a few months later, at the age of 29, screaming that Mahmud Gawan was tearing him to pieces.

This incident highlights the power struggle and political instability in the Bahmani Sultanate during the late 15th century. It also sheds light on the role of prime ministers and advisors in medieval Indian kingdoms and their vulnerability to the whims of the rulers they served.

Overview of Women in the Vijayanagara Empire
The Vijayanagara Empire (1336-1646) was known for its rich cultural heritage and societal structures where women played significant roles. According to Portuguese writer Nuniz, women in this empire exhibited remarkable skills across various domains.
Areas of Expertise
- Wrestling:
Women were known to be proficient in wrestling, a physical sport that showcased their strength and athleticism. This indicates a society where women actively participated in physical training and combat sports.
- Astrology:
Women were also recognized for their knowledge of astrology. This reflects the intellectual engagement of women in spiritual and scientific pursuits, which were highly valued in the Vijayanagara culture.
- Accounting:
The expertise in accounting signifies the active involvement of women in economic activities. This role was crucial in managing household finances and trade, indicating their contribution to the economy.
- Soothsaying:
Soothsaying, or divination, was another area where women excelled. Their involvement in this practice highlights the spiritual and mystical dimensions of their roles in society, often providing guidance and insights to their communities.
Conclusion
The skills exhibited by women in the Vijayanagara Empire as noted by Nuniz reflect a multifaceted society where women were not only involved in domestic spheres but also engaged in sports, intellectual activities, economic management, and spiritual practices. Thus, the correct answer is indeed option 'D', as women were experts in wrestling, astrology, accounting, and soothsaying.

Kuruvai is a type of rice that is predominantly grown in the state of Tamil Nadu, India. It is specifically associated with the cultivation of rice during the Kuruvai season, which is characterized by the onset of southwest monsoon rains in the region.

Kuruvai Rice
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Kuruvai rice is a high-yielding variety of rice that is mainly cultivated in the Cauvery delta region of Tamil Nadu. It is known for its short duration and ability to withstand drought-like conditions. This variety of rice matures quickly, allowing farmers to harvest it within a shorter period of time compared to other rice varieties. The grains of Kuruvai rice are generally medium-sized, slender, and aromatic, making it a popular choice among consumers.

Cultivation during Kuruvai Season
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The Kuruvai season typically starts around June and lasts until September. This period coincides with the onset of southwest monsoon rains, which provide the necessary water for paddy cultivation. Farmers prepare the fields by plowing and leveling the land to create a suitable environment for rice cultivation. The fields are then flooded with water, and the rice seeds are sown directly into the water-soaked soil.

Once the seeds are sown, the farmers carefully manage the water levels in the fields throughout the cultivation period. They ensure that the fields remain flooded during the initial stages of growth, which helps in the germination of seeds and establishment of seedlings. As the plants grow, the water level is gradually reduced to allow the roots to penetrate deeper into the soil.

Harvesting and Utilization
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Kuruvai rice is typically harvested around three to four months after sowing, depending on the specific variety and growing conditions. The mature rice plants are manually cut using sickles and gathered in bundles. These bundles are then threshed to separate the grains from the rest of the plant material.

Once the rice grains are separated, they can be utilized in various culinary preparations. Kuruvai rice is commonly used to make traditional South Indian dishes like biryani, pulao, and idli. It is known for its distinct flavor and aroma, which adds a unique taste to these dishes.

In conclusion, Kuruvai is a type of rice that is grown during the Kuruvai season in Tamil Nadu. It is characterized by its high yield, short duration, and ability to withstand drought-like conditions. Its cultivation plays a significant role in the agricultural economy of the region and contributes to the rich culinary heritage of South India.

The Vijayanagar Kingdom was a South Indian empire that ruled from the 14th to the 17th century. The kingdom was divided into several administrative units, which were organized in a hierarchical order. The correct order of these administrative units is as follows:

Mandalam
Nadu
Sthala
Grama

1. Mandalam:
- The Mandalam was the largest administrative unit in the Vijayanagar Kingdom.
- It was further divided into smaller units called Nadu.
- There were several Mandalams in the kingdom, each with its own governor who was appointed by the king.

2. Nadu:
- The Nadu was a smaller administrative unit within the Mandalam.
- It was governed by a local chieftain who was responsible for maintaining law and order in the area.
- The Nadu was further divided into even smaller units called Sthala.

3. Sthala:
- The Sthala was the smallest administrative unit in the Vijayanagar Kingdom.
- It was governed by a local headman who was responsible for collecting taxes and maintaining the village.
- The Sthala was further divided into even smaller units called Grama.

4. Grama:
- The Grama was the smallest unit of administration in the Vijayanagar Kingdom.
- It was a village or a group of villages that were governed by a local council of elders.
- The Grama was responsible for local issues such as irrigation, sanitation, and other basic needs of the people.

In summary, the Vijayanagar Kingdom was divided into Mandalam, Nadu, Sthala, and Grama in a hierarchical order. The Mandalam was the largest administrative unit, followed by Nadu, Sthala, and Grama, which were increasingly smaller units of administration.

The city of Vijayanagar, located in present-day Hampi, Karnataka, was one of the most powerful and prosperous cities in South India during the 14th to 16th centuries. It was the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire and was known for its grand architecture, vibrant culture, and thriving economy. The city was fortified with seven walls, one within the other, to provide security and protection.

- The seventh fortress: The palace of the king
The seventh and innermost fortress housed the magnificent palace of the king. It was the center of power and authority in the city. The palace was adorned with exquisite carvings, intricate architecture, and sprawling gardens. It served as the residence of the royal family and was the seat of governance.

- The third fortress: Houses of nobles
Located between the third and seventh fortresses were the houses of nobles. These houses were occupied by the aristocracy and high-ranking officials of the kingdom. They were built in close proximity to the palace to maintain a sense of prestige and security. The nobles played a crucial role in the administration of the empire and were granted privileges and benefits by the king.

- Pride of place between the third and seventh fortress: Shops and bazaars
Among the various elements present between the third and seventh fortresses, it was the shops and bazaars that occupied pride of place. These commercial areas were bustling with activity and served as the economic hub of the city. They were filled with merchants, traders, and artisans who sold a wide range of goods and services. The shops and bazaars were essential for the city's economy, as they facilitated trade, commerce, and exchange of goods.

The presence of shops and bazaars between the third and seventh fortresses highlights the importance of trade and commerce in the city of Vijayanagar. The thriving economy of the city was a crucial factor in its prosperity and influence. The presence of these commercial areas in such a prominent location suggests that the empire placed significant emphasis on economic activities and encouraged a vibrant market culture.

Amaram: Territory with a fixed revenue to military chiefs

Amaram refers to a system prevalent during the medieval period in India where territories were assigned to military chiefs or nobles with fixed revenues. These territories were known as Amarams. The system was part of the feudal system that existed in India during that time.

Feudal System in India
During the medieval period, India witnessed the rise of several regional kingdoms and empires. The feudal system was a hierarchical structure that governed the distribution of land, wealth, and power. At the top of the hierarchy was the king or emperor who held the ultimate authority. The king distributed land and revenue-generating territories to his nobles and military chiefs as a reward for their loyalty, service, and military support.

Amarams in the Feudal System
The territories assigned to military chiefs or nobles were known as Amarams. These territories were typically agricultural lands that generated revenue in the form of taxes, tributes, or rents from the local population. The military chiefs or nobles, known as Amaramdars or Amilis, were responsible for maintaining law and order, protecting the territory from external threats, and collecting revenue on behalf of the king.

Fixed Revenue
One of the key features of an Amaram was the fixed revenue assigned to it. The king would determine the revenue that could be generated from the Amaram based on various factors such as the fertility of the land, the size of the population, and the economic potential of the region. The military chief or noble was entitled to collect this fixed revenue from the territory.

Importance of Amarams
The Amaram system played a crucial role in maintaining the stability and coherence of the feudal system. It ensured a steady income for the military chiefs or nobles, which in turn strengthened their loyalty and allegiance to the king. The revenue generated from Amarams also contributed to the overall financial resources of the kingdom or empire, enabling the king to fund his administration, military campaigns, and public works.

Conclusion
Amarams were territories assigned to military chiefs or nobles during the medieval period in India. These territories had a fixed revenue assigned to them and played a crucial role in the feudal system. The Amaram system provided stability, income, and support to the military chiefs or nobles while contributing to the overall governance and finances of the kingdom or empire.

Abdur Razzaq says The city of Vijayanagar is such that eyes has not seen nor ear heard of any place resembling it upon the whole earth.

The correct answer is option 'C' - Abdur Razzaq.

Vijayanagar was a medieval city located in present-day Hampi, Karnataka, India. It was the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire, which flourished from the 14th to the 16th century CE. The city was known for its grandeur, architectural marvels, and opulence.

Abdur Razzaq, a Persian ambassador, visited Vijayanagar during the reign of King Devaraya II in the early 15th century. He was impressed by the magnificence of the city and described it as unparalleled. His account of Vijayanagar provides valuable insights into the city's splendor and grandeur.

Here is a breakdown of the answer:

1. The city of Vijayanagar:
- Located in present-day Hampi, Karnataka, India.
- Capital of the Vijayanagara Empire.
- Flourished from the 14th to the 16th century CE.

2. Abdur Razzaq:
- A Persian ambassador who visited Vijayanagar.
- Visited during the reign of King Devaraya II in the early 15th century.

3. Description of Vijayanagar:
- According to Abdur Razzaq, Vijayanagar was unmatched in its beauty and grandeur.
- He described it as a city that eyes had not seen nor ear heard of any place resembling it upon the whole earth.
- The city was known for its architectural marvels, opulent palaces, and splendid temples.
- The streets were wide and well-paved, lined with beautiful buildings and shops.
- The markets were filled with goods from various parts of the world, showcasing the city's prosperity and trade networks.
- The city had numerous tanks, gardens, and orchards, adding to its scenic beauty.
- The royal palace, known as the Mahanavami Dibba, was a magnificent structure with intricate carvings and multiple levels.
- The temples, such as the Vittala Temple and Hazara Rama Temple, were architectural masterpieces adorned with intricate sculptures.
- The Hampi Bazaar and Virupaksha Bazaar were bustling marketplaces that reflected the city's vibrant commercial activities.

In conclusion, Abdur Razzaq, a Persian ambassador, described the city of Vijayanagar as an unparalleled marvel of beauty and grandeur. His account provides valuable insights into the splendor of the city during the Vijayanagara Empire.

The correct answer is option A: The satis sacrifice was commemorated by the erection of Satikals.

Explanation:
The practice of becoming a sati or sahagamana was prevalent in ancient India. Sati is the act of a widow self-immolating on her husband's funeral pyre. Sahagamana refers to a widow joining her husband in death by voluntary fasting.

a) The satis sacrifice was commemorated by the erection of Satikals:
This statement is incorrect. There is no historical evidence to suggest that the satis sacrifice was commemorated by the erection of Satikals. Satikals are not associated with the practice of sati or sahagamana.

b) There was no compulsion, and it was done voluntarily:
This statement is correct. The practice of sati or sahagamana was not compulsory. It was a voluntary act undertaken by widows who believed it would elevate their status and ensure their spiritual union with their deceased husbands.

c) It was very popular and widespread:
This statement is correct. The practice of sati or sahagamana was prevalent in ancient India, particularly during the medieval period. It was considered an act of virtue and devotion by some sections of society, and many widows willingly chose to undertake it.

d) There were no social disabilities attached to widows who did not choose to become satis:
This statement is correct. Widows who did not choose to become satis were not socially ostracized or subjected to any disabilities. They were allowed to live a normal life within society, although they might have faced certain restrictions or limitations due to their widowhood.

In conclusion, the correct statement is option A: The satis sacrifice was commemorated by the erection of Satikals. This statement is incorrect as there is no historical evidence linking the practice of sati or sahagamana to the erection of Satikals.

Deva Raya II, also known as Gajapati Deva Raya II, was a ruler of the Vijayanagara Empire in South India. He reigned from 1424 to 1446 AD. He is known for his military campaigns against the Bahmani Sultanate and his efforts to strengthen his army.

a) Deva Raya II felt that the superiority of the Bahmani army was due to their sturdier horses and their large body of good archers.
- Deva Raya II recognized that the Bahmani army had an advantage in terms of their cavalry and archers. This realization led him to take certain measures to improve his own army.

b) He, therefore, enlisted 2000 Muslims, gave them jagirs and commended all his Hindu soldiers and officers to learn the art of archery from them.
- In order to strengthen his army, Deva Raya II enlisted 2000 Muslims and gave them jagirs (land grants) as an incentive. He also instructed his Hindu soldiers and officers to learn the art of archery from the Muslim recruits. This indicates his willingness to embrace diversity in his army and learn from the strengths of other cultures.

c) With his new army, Deva Raya II crossed the Tungabhadra river in 1443 A.D. and tried to recover Mudkal, Bankapur, etc.
- With his strengthened army, Deva Raya II launched a military campaign in 1443 AD. He crossed the Tungabhadra river and attempted to recapture territories such as Mudkal and Bankapur, which had been lost to the Bahmani Sultanate. This demonstrates his determination to regain lost territories and establish Vijayanagara's dominance in the region.

d) All of the above.
- The correct answer is option 'D' because all of the given statements are true. Deva Raya II recognized the strengths of the Bahmani army and took measures to improve his own army. He enlisted Muslims and encouraged his Hindu soldiers to learn from them. With his strengthened army, he launched a campaign to recover lost territories.

In conclusion, Deva Raya II's actions reflect his strategic thinking and his efforts to strengthen his military capabilities. By recognizing the strengths of his adversaries and embracing diversity in his army, he aimed to regain lost territories and establish Vijayanagara's dominance in the region.